Y+2009++STUDENT+CHOICES+FOR+AS3.4+DECISIONS


 * LIST OF TOPICS & STUDENTS**


 * Each will be given an envelope with a decision in it. Plan and write it by the next History period.** PPE 30th October

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=**Vogel Plan ON JP AP OT HD FH HP TB AV** =
 * __Essay Question No 5__ **
 * Explain the factors that led to the decision by the **** New Zealand **** parliament to implement the Vogel Plan from 1870. Evaluate the political, social and economic consequences of the plan until 1890. **

When Julius Vogel became Colonel Treasurer in 1869 New Zealand was plagued with three main economic problems which led to the NZ Parliament’s decision to implement Vogel’s Plan as the solution. These problems were: the parochialism and regionalism that dominated the direction of the NZ economy in the 1850s and 60s, NZ’s dependency on its primary industry and particularly its gold, wool and timber exports and the problem of distance to local and overseas markets due to the lack of infrastructure. Raewyn Dalziel asserts that Julius Vogel was the man who had the clearest vision for New Zealand’s bleak economic prospects. He proposed to borrow £10 million pounds from Britain to increase public works and immigration to NZ. Consequently, this decision had several important political, social and economic impacts on NZ including NZ’s descent into the Long Depression (or stagnation) from 1879 to 1896, the abolition of provincial government, the growth of railway in NZ and the arrival of 100,000 immigrants to this nation’s shores. Vogel’s Plan was ambitious but there was no doubt that the central government had to make the decision to direct the NZ economy to a brighter future.

One of the main factors that led the NZ parliament to implement Vogel’s Plan was the lack of a cohesive, national economy in NZ due to the provincialism that existed in NZ. There was little cooperation between the provinces and even “downright rivalry” according to Russell Stone. The Hawkes Bay Superintendent described NZ as having “a number of small kingdoms with no common unit among them.” Development between provinces varied hugely. For example, Otago and Canterbury prospered and were able to implement extensive public works schemes and successful immigration policies to redress gender balance problems in their provinces because of their success with the gold boom in Otago in 1861 and the success of pastoral and grain farming. Furthermore, land distribution in the South Island was much more successful than in the North thanks to Governor Grey’s acquisition of 30 million acres of land earlier. In the North Island however regions such as Taranaki and Waikato were in economic ruins due to the New Zealand Wars and conflict with the Kingitanga. For this reason, the S. Island dominated NZ politically because of its wealth through pastoralism and agriculture. In 1865 Otago actually wanted to seek for separation from the rest of the country. There was no doubt that the central government had to solve this problem of regionalism to make NZ a viable economy and to improve communications between regions. According to Russell Stone, the economy would not prosper as long as “communications were bad and regions were isolated from each other.”

NZ’s dependency on three main exports: gold, wool and timber was also a problem. Russell Stone asserts that NZ did not have economic viability because of its shortage of staple exports which meant that there was no money to fund future economic projects nor to ensure a good standard of living. According to W J Gardner, “Most of NZ’s economy was on the sheep’s back.” Statistics from 1861 to 1870 prove this because during this time the number of sheep increased three and a half fold while the weight of wool exported increased five fold. NZ’s dependency on gold was also an economic factor that led to the decision to implement the Vogel Plan. Gold was not a sustainable industry, having been discovered first in Otago (1861), West Coast (1864) and finally Thames (1867). However as Stone questions quite rightly, “Gold was petering out; what was to take its place? Wool was not enough.” New Zealand clearly had too many people for a pastoral economy and not enough for a pastoral-industrial economy. According to Raewyn Dalziel NZ’s secondary industry was under-developed and consisted of a few textile factories, flour mills and breweries. In 1871, the mining industry employed more people than secondary industry. There was no doubt in the parliament’s mind that the Vogel’s Plan would be a wise decision to develop NZ’s secondary industry to ease its reliance on primary exports.

The third main factors that led to the implementation of the Vogel Plan was NZ’s distance from potential markets and reliance on the British market because of its lack of economic infrastructure. NZ’s lack of ports and wharves coupled with the expense of coastal shipping seriously limited market options. In particular, NZ’s own rugged terrain made transportation very difficult. Northcott and Ofner state that it was easier to transport flour from Waikato to Sydney than to the Wairarapa. NZ also had a problem because of its dependency on the British market as Britain was the main investor in NZ. However this made NZ vulnerable to trading conditions in Britain and the level of demand in Britain. W J Gardner notes that “if NZ was over-committed to Britain, the reverse was also true.” Indeed, NZ’s lack of infrastructure meant that its economic opportunities were seriously limited and NZ’s local emphasis was another reason why the Parliament chose to implement the Vogel Plan in order to improve communication in NZ and to expand its markets both within and outside NZ.

In his speech to the politicians in the Assembly Vogel declared that: “the great wants of the colony are: public works in the shape of roads and railway, and immigration.” Thus the Parliament, convinced by the ambitious vision Vogel had for NZ, chose to implement the Vogel Plan which would prove to have serious economic, social and political ramifications for this nation.

Economically, the Vogel Plan of 1870 impacted on NZ because it partially caused NZ’s descent into the Long Depression which lasted from 1876 to 1896. This was because the huge amount of borrowing from Britain made NZ especially vulnerable to overseas trade conditions. Vogel’s Plan also set a precedent for the huge borrowing of money by both banks and individuals for example, Raewyn Dalziel states that Vogel’s Plan and its “borrowed millions diffused an air of prosperity that affected not only the govt but also the people.” A consequence of this was land speculation. Individuals borrowed large amounts of money to buy land at high prices which they hoped would rise in value once they were opened up by roads and railway. Unfortunately Vogel’s Plan also masked the early signs of the Depression. By 1876 it had already become difficult to borrow money in London and the collapse of the City of Glasgow Bank, a large investor in NZ in 1879 was the first important signal of the future years of economic difficulty. According to Gardner, “the collapse of this conspicuous association dragged down the colony’s credit in Britain.” Even when the prices of wool and wheat had begun to fall since 1873, these were “obscured by the level of government spending” according to Dalziel. Many people now found themselves bankrupt as did many banks. However Raewyn Dalziel and Gary Hawke have defended Vogel by claiming that Vogel’s Plan was not entirely responsible for causing the depression. However, the truth is self-evident that Vogel’s Plan had made NZ sensitive to overseas conditions and the downfall of NZ’s investors was partly to blame for the Depression as an economic impact of the Parliament’s decision to implement the plan.

However revisionist historians argue that the Long Depression was not a depression at all but merely a period of economic stagnation. Gary Hawke points to the fact that there was no fall in real income but that there was even a moderate rise of GDP from £24.2 million in 1876 to £31.2 million in 1895. However Vogel’s Plan had some serious social implications for the nation: the rise of unemployment, poverty and the fall in prices led to ‘social depression’. Signs of social depression include larrikinism, wife desertation and an exodus of settlers to Australia. However Vogel’s Plan did not create an economic depression in NZ that crippled the country. Indeed, the North Island was much less affected by the Depression than the South. The growth of the timber industry in the N. Island fuelled by demand in Auckland and Wellington allowed some people to do well economically. Public works such as railway increased during this time because the timber industry provided wood needed for railway needed to transport the timber. The development of refrigeration in 1882 also made small scale farming economically viable. Belich says that “Refrigeration was the knight in icy armour that rode to the rescue of the NZ economy in the 1880s.” Refrigeration revolutionised the export of cheese and dairy products and frozen meats. This was called the “protein industry” by Belich. NZ was able to supply British demand for dairy goods. Therefore we can prove that the economic and social consequences of Vogel’s Plan were not crippling for the nation because there were economic opportunities that settlers could pursue during this stagnant period in world economy.

Vogel’s Plan had an important political consequence for the nation because of the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Dalziel observes that as the nation became more and more a social and economic unit, the provinces became an “anachronism.” The provinces had also proved themselves to be inadequate leaders of the NZ economy. The existence of “pork barrel” politics in this sector of NZ government meant that resources were often mismanaged, wasted and misused. Each province wanted to gain most for its region and “joined in an unseeming scramble to acquire as much money for railway as its neighbour, regardless of its needs” according to Raewyn Dalziel. For this reason, NZ’s railway under the Vogel Plan has been considered by some critics to be a “disjointed, incomplete skeleton” whose immediate (or lack of) economic benefits did not reflect the proportion of borrowed capital expended on it.” The provincial council’s inability to effectively manage resources and colonial development led to its abortion in 1876.

However despite some waste of resources under the Provincial Government, the development of railway and the “progress industry” was initially important to NZ. In 1870, NZ had 50 miles of railway and 1,139 miles by 1879. In Auckland, rail was particularly useful where water transport had been the main means of transport. The single most important railway line in the N. Island ran from Auckland to Te Awamutu. The railway and development of public works was an important consequence of the Vogel Plan that opened up New Zealand for greater economic opportunities.

Finally, one of Vogel’s most significant social contributions was the arrival of 100,000 immigrants to NZ under the Vogel Scheme. People were recruited from Scandinavia. Dalziel comments that the Scandinavians often immigrated in entire communities with skills in farming and trade that made them in great demand. “Landless Danes, Norwegians and Swedes were recruited to special settlements – remote areas of forestry to open up remote regions of NZ for development. For example 3500 Scandinavians were employed in Matamata and the Wairarapa in return for 40 acres of bush. Vogel’s Plan sought to diversify NZ’s economy into the secondary industry as well so Vogel’s Agents for Immigration tried to attract people with secondary industry skills such as carpentry, masonry and bricklaying.

In conclusion, Vogel’s Plan was an entirely necessary political move to solve the economic problems of the 60’s including: regionalism, NZ’s dependence on its primary industry and its lack of economic infrastructure. The decision by the NZ Parliament to follow Vogel’s vision had serious political, social and economic ramifications including: NZ’s involvement in the Long Depression/Stagnation, the abolition of the Provinces and the arrival of 100,000 settlers to diversify NZ’s pastoral population.

** GRADE E ** The main factors behind the New Zealand Parliament’s decision to implement Vogel’s expansionist plan from 1870 lie in the lack of national unity experienced by New Zealand as a result of the rivalries formed by the provincial Governments as well as their varied success which ultimately led to the central Government trying to diminish the ability of the more prosperous provinces to control their own finances. In 1870 New Zealand was going through a period of “economic stagnation” so Vogel’s idea for development was welcomed with open arms. The significance of the provincial Governments in New Zealand society meant that it was difficult to borrow money from overseas as Vogel stated so the provinces were eventually abolished in 1876. Vogel’s plan resulted in a more unified New Zealand in a political sense as the provinces were abolished and more people took an interest in politics. However, Vogel’s plan was a catalyst in causing the Long Depression in 1879 and by 1890 the economy was still feeling the effects of the hardship experienced during the 80’s. The construction of public buildings and roads influenced social cohesion.
 * __Essay Question No 5__ **
 * Explain the factors that led to the decision by the **** New Zealand **** parliament to implement the Vogel Plan from 1870. Evaluate the political, social and economic consequences of the plan until 1890. **

Julius Vogel made his proposal in 1870 which stated that he would inject £10 million in to the New Zealand economy through development infrastructure and a migration scheme. He hoped that by injecting a large sum of money into the economy would result in increased private consumption. Dalziell describes his plan as “a bold expansionist policy” and we also see that Vogel’s scheme is one of New Zealand’s earliest examples of a modern day expansionary fiscal policy.

Throughout the 1860’s, the varying speeds of development of provinces was a cause for concern. The provinces which had plenty of land to sell prospered as the revenue from land sales went towards the development of infrastructure such as roads to increase trade. “Responsibility for colonisation and economic development was in their hands” (Northcott). However to be able to sell land, boundaries needed to be created and land needed to be surveyed and to do this money was required. The smaller provinces with less land found it hard to acquire capital and risked plummetting into bankruptcy while provinces such as Otago and Canterbury prospered.

In 1867, various Constitutions led to the diminishing power of the provinces to control their own finances, this gave more power to the central Government. Not only did it prevent the already wealthy provinces from getting richer it prevented the less prosperous provinces from descending into obscurity. This was effectively reducing inequality between the provinces. By doing this, the Central Government was gaining power over the provincial Governments and it would only be a matter of time before the Provinces were completely abolished.

In the decade leading up to the introduction of Vogel’s plan, New Zealand was going through a period of “economic stagnation” – this meant that it was harder for New Zealand’s economy to grow any more without major investment, but because New Zealand’s provinces were effectively isolated from one another, it was difficult to borrow money from overseas.

Vogel’s plan stated that overseas vendors would be more likely to lend a large amount of money if the provinces were abolished thus unifying New Zealand and that a £10 million injection into the economy would shift New Zealand out of the economic stagnation. By directly identifying these two problematic areas and offering simple solutions, Vogel’s plan gained a lot of support and was quickly implemented.

By 1875, all of the central Government agreed that the provinces had to go and when parliament in June 1876, this was easily achieved. This meant that New Zealand was no longer operating separately but was under the control of one Government.

85% of money borrowed from overseas under Vogel’s plan was spent on the development of infrastructure. However because Vogel was unaware of the lack of capital goods available in New Zealand at the time, the initial £10 million ballooned to £20 million. The 1400km of rail, 4000km of telegraph line + road, as well as several public buildings helped to achieve “a sense of greater national cohesion and unity” (Northcott). New Zealand’s manufacturing sector developed partially due to cheap labour and a permanent industrial work force appeared in cities and towns which marked the beginning of a New Zealand working class. 100 000 immigrants were assisted to New Zealand under the Vogel Scheme – this gave a huge boost to New Zealand’s population.

New Zealand was extremely dependent on Britain for trade and therefore the state of her economy. New Zealand’s economy was affected by any changes in price and demand in the British market. This combined with the collapse of the Bank of Glasgow in 1878 saw the New Zealand enter an economic decline in 1879. This period was known as “the long depression” and lasted throughout the 1880’s. A Depression was inevitable as New Zealand was going through an artificial boom period induced by an extremely large __and__ borrowed injection and according to the business cycle, “booms and busts” occur naturally and cyclically as what goes up must come down.

In 1879, all Pakeha men were given the right to vote. Previously only those men who were land owners were allowed to the vote. Many transients did not meet the requirement which stated that they must have a permanent address. In 1879, all of those registered to vote only 53% did so, however, in 1887, this number increased to 64%. The increase in voter turn out can be accredited to the increased interest in politics due to the economic hardship of the 1880’s.

Vogel’s plan succeeded in unifying New Zealand politically, as the abolition of the provinces meant that New Zealand now had to work together as one and co-operate. This idea is further shown by the dramatic increase in voter turn out between 1879 and 1887 which proves that New Zealand was more politically unified than when the provinces existed as people, specifically Pakeha men were more involved in the affairs of the entire nation.

In terms of economics, Vogel’s plan may have significantly developed New Zealand’s manufacturing industry but it also hastened the onset of a depression and its catastrophic effects were extremely strong in 1890 as the depression lasted right up until the beginning of the 1890’s. Vogel’s loan of £20 million as well as interest accumulated on the loan was not paid off until the middle/end of the 1890’s and the people of New Zealand were the ones who had to pay it off through taxes.

The infrastructure developed as a result of Vogel’s plan, meant that transport and therefore communication between regions became easier and the immigration of 100 000 people through Vogel’s scheme helped to populate New Zealand and make her less “atomized” (Miles Fairburn). This made interaction with people in New Zealand less difficult.

In conclusion, the diminishing power of the provincial governments caused by the Central Government trying to prevent an increase in inequality between regions, as well as the relentless “economic stagnation” New Zealand was experiencing led to Vogel’s plan being easily implemented. The consequences of the decision to implement the plan was wide spread across New Zealand Society. Although the effects on the social and political aspects on New Zealand life were unifying by 1890, the plan also resulted in an economic depression which New Zealand felt for many years afterwards.

** __GRADE E__ **

When Julius Vogel became Colonel Treasurer in 1869 New Zealand was plagued with three main economic problems which led to the NZ Parliament’s decision to implement Vogel’s Plan as the solution. These problems were: the parochialism and regionalism that dominated the direction of the NZ economy in the 1850s and 60s, NZ’s dependency on its primary industry and particularly its gold, wool and timber exports and the problem of distance to local and overseas markets due to the lack of infrastructure. Raewyn Dalziel asserts that Julius Vogel was the man who had the clearest vision for New Zealand’s bleak economic prospects. He proposed to borrow £10 million pounds from Britain to increase public works and immigration to NZ. Consequently, this decision had several important political, social and economic impacts on NZ including NZ’s descent into the Long Depression (or Stagnation) from 1879 to 1896, the abolition of provincial government, the growth of railway in NZ and the arrival of 100,000 immigrants to this nation’s shores. Vogel’s Plan was ambitious but there was no doubt that the central government had to make the decision to direct the NZ economy to a brighter future.
 * __Essay Question No 5__ **
 * Explain the factors that led to the decision by the **** New Zealand **** parliament to implement the Vogel Plan from 1870. Evaluate the political, social and economic consequences of the plan until 1890. **

One of the main factors that led the NZ parliament to implement Vogel’s Plan was the lack of a cohesive, national economy in NZ due to the provincialism that existed in NZ. There was little cooperation between the provinces and even “downright rivalry” according to Russell Stone. The Hawke’s Bay Superintendent described NZ as having “a number of small kingdoms with no common unity among them.” Development between provinces varied hugely. For example, Otago and Canterbury prospered and were able to implement extensive public works schemes and successful immigration policies to redress gender balance problems in their provinces because of their success with the gold boom in Otago in 1861 and the success of pastoral and grain farming. Furthermore, land distribution in the South Island was much more successful than in the North thanks to Governor Grey’s acquisition of 30 million acres of land earlier. In the North Island however regions such as Taranaki and Waikato were in economic ruins due to the New Zealand Wars and conflict with the Kingitanga. For this reason, the S. Island dominated NZ politically because of its wealth through pastoralism and agriculture. In 1865 Otago actually wanted to seek for separation from the rest of the country. There was no doubt that the central government had to solve this problem of regionalism to make NZ a viable economy and to improve communications between regions. According to Russell Stone, the economy would not prosper as long as “communications were bad and regions were isolated from each other.”

NZ’s dependence on three main exports: gold, wool and timber was also a problem. Russell Stone asserts that NZ did not have economic viability because of its shortage of staple exports which meant that there was no money to fund future economic projects nor to ensure a good standard of living. According to W J Gardner, “Most of NZ’s economy was on the sheep’s back.” Statistics from 1861 to 1870 prove this because during this time the number of sheep increased three and a half fold while the weight of wool exported increased five fold. NZ’s dependency on gold was also an economic factor that led to the decision to implement the Vogel Plan. Gold was not a sustainable industry, having been discovered first in Otago (1861), West Coast (1864) and finally Thames (1867). However as Stone questions quite rightly, “Gold was petering out; what was to take its place? Wool was not enough.” New Zealand clearly had too many people for a pastoral economy and not enough for a pastoral-industrial economy. According to Raewyn Dalziel NZ’s secondary industry was under-developed and consisted of a few texile factories, flour mills and breweries. In 1871, the mining industry employed more people than secondary industry. There was no doubt in the parliament’s mind that the Vogel’s Plan would be a wise decision to develop NZ’s secondary industry to ease its reliance on primary exports.

The third main factor that led to the implementation of the Vogel Plan was NZ’s distance from potential markets and reliance on the British market because of its lack of economic infrastructure. NZ’s lack of ports and wharves coupled with the expense of coastal shipping seriously limited market options. In particular, NZ’s own rugged terrain made transportation very difficult. Northcott and Ofner state that it was easier to transport flour from Waikato to Sydney than to the Wairarapa. NZ also had a problem because of its dependency on the British market as Britain was the main investor in NZ. However this made NZ vulnerable to trading conditions in Britain and the level of demand in Britain. W J Gardner notes that, “if NZ was over-committed to Britain, the reverse was also true.” Indeed, NZ’s lack of infrastructure meant that economic opportunities were seriously limited and NZ’s local emphasis was another reason why the Parliament chose to implement the Vogel Plan in order to improve communication in NZ and to expand its markets both within and outside NZ.

In his speech to the politicians in the Assembly Vogel declared that: “the great wants of the colony are: public works in the shape of roads and railway, and immigration.” Thus the Parliament, convinced by the ambitious vision Vogel had for NZ, chose to implement the Vogel Plan which would prove to have serious economic, social and political ramifications for this nation.

Economically, the Vogel Plan of 1870 impacted on NZ because it partially caused NZ’s descent into the Long Depression which lasted from 1876 to 1896. This was because the huge amount of borrowing from Britain made NZ especially vulnerable to overseas trade conditions. Vogel’s Plan also set a precedent for the huge borrowing of money by both banks and individuals. For example, Raewyn Dalziel states that Vogel’s Plan and its “borrowed millions diffused an air of prosperity that affected not only the govt but also the people.” A consequence of this was land speculation. Individuals borrowed large amounts of money to buy land at high prices which they hoped would rise in value once they were opened up by roads and railway. Unfortunately Vogel’s Plan also masked the early signs of the Depression. By 1876 it had already become difficult to borrow money in London and the collapse of the City of Glasgow Bank, a large investor in NZ in 1879 was the first important signal of the future years of economic difficulty. According to Gardner, “the collapse of this conspicuous association dragged down the colony’s credit in Britain.” Even when the prices of wool and wheat had begun to fall since 1873, these were “obscured by the level of government spending” according to Dalziel. Many people now found themselves bankrupt as did many banks. However Raewyn Dalziel and Gary Hawke have defended Vogel by claiming that Vogel’s Plan was not entirely responsible for causing the depression. However, the truth is self-evident that Vogel’s Plan had made NZ sensitive to overseas conditions and the downfall of NZ’s investors was partly to blame for the Depression as an economic impact of the Parliament’s decision to implement the plan.

However revisionist historians argue that the Long Depression was not a depression at all but merely a period of economic stagnation. Gary Hawke points to the fact that there was no fall in real income but that there was even a moderate rise of GDP from £24.2 million in 1876 to £31.2 million in 1895. However the Vogel’s Plan had some serious social implications for the nation: the rise of unemployment, poverty and the fall in prices led to ‘social depression’. Signs of social depression include larrikinism, wife desertation and an exodus of settlers to Australia. However Vogel’s Plan did not create an economic depression in NZ that crippled the country. Indeed, the North Island was much less affected by the Depression than the South. The growth of the timber industry in the N. Island fuelled by demand in Auckland and Wellington allowed some people to do well economically. Public works such as railway increased during this time because the timber industry provided wood needed for railway needed to transport the timber. The development of refrigeration in 1882 also made small scale farming economically viable. Belich says that “Refrigeration was the knight in icy armour that rode to the rescue of the NZ economy in the 1880s.” Refrigeration revolutionised the export of cheese and dairy products and frozen meats. This was called the “protein industry” by Belich. NZ was able to supply British demand for dairy goods. Therefore we can prove that the economic and social consequences of Vogel’s Plan were not crippling for the nation because there were economic opportunities that settlers could pursue during this stagnant period in world economy.

Vogel’s Plan had an important political consequence for the nation because of the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Dalziel observes that as the nation became more and more a social and economic unit, the provinces became an “anachronism.” The provinces had also proved themselves to be inadequate leaders of the NZ economy. The existence of “pork barrel” politics in this sector of NZ government meant that resources were often mismanaged, wasted and misused. Each province wanted to gain most for its region and “joined in an unseeming scramble to acquire as much money for railway as its neighbour, regardless of its needs” according to Raewyn Dalziel. For this reason, NZ’s railway under the Vogel Plan has been considered by some critics to be a “disjointed, incomplete skeleton” whose immediate (or lack of) economic benefits did not reflect the proportion of borrowed capital expended on it. The provincial council’s inability to effectively manage resources and colonial development led to its abolition in 1876.

However despite some waste of resources under the Provincial Government, the development of railway and the “progress industry” was vitally important to NZ. In 1870, NZ had 50 miles of railway and 1,139 miles by 1879. In Auckland, rail was particularly useful where water transport had been the main means of transport. The single most important railway line in the N. Island ran from Auckland to Te Awamutu. The railway and development of public works was an important consequence of the Vogel Plan that opened up New Zealand for greater economic opportunities.

Finally, one of Vogel’s most significant social contributions was the arrival of 100,000 immigrants to NZ under the Vogel Scheme. People were recruited from Scandinavia. Dalziel comments that the Scandinavians often immigrated in entire communities with skills in farming and trade that made them in great demand. “Landless Danes, Norwegians and Suedes were recruited to special settlements – remote areas of forestry to open up remote regions of NZ for development. For example 3500 Scandinavians were employed in Matamata and the Wairarapa in return for 40 acres of bush. Vogel’s Plan sought to diversify NZ’s economy into the secondary industry as well so Vogel’s Agents for Immigration tried to attract people with secondary industry skills such as carpentry, masonry and bricklaying.

In conclusion, Vogel’s Plan was an entirely necessary political move to solve the economic problems of the 60’s including: regionalism, NZ’s dependence on its primary industry and its lack of economic infrastructure. The decision by the NZ Parliament to follow Vogel’s vision had serious political, social and economic ramifications including: NZ’s involvement in the Long Depression/stagnation, the abolition of the Provinces and the arrival of 100,000 settlers to diversify NZ’s pastoral population.

**__GRADE E__**

The main factors behind the New Zealand Parliament’s decision to implement Vogel’s expansionist plan from 1870 lie in the lack of national unity experienced by New Zealand as a result of the rivalries formed by the provincial Governments as well as their varied success which ultimately led to the central Government trying to diminish the ability of the more prosperous provinces to control their own finances. In 1870 New Zealand was going through a period of “economic stagnation” so Vogel’s idea for development was welcomed with open arms. The significance of the provincial Governments in New Zealand society meant that it was difficult to borrow money from overseas as Vogel stated so the provinces were eventually abolished in 1876. Vogel’s plan resulted in a more unified New Zealand in a political sense as the provinces were abolished and more people took an interest in politics. However, Vogel’s plan was a catalyst in causing the Long Depression in 1879 and by 1890 the economy was still feeling the effects of the hardship experienced during the 80s. The construction of public buildings and roads influenced social cohesion.
 * __Essay Question No 5__**
 * Explain the factors that led to the decision by the **** New Zealand **** parliament to implement the Vogel Plan from 1870. Evaluate the political, social and economic consequences of the plan until 1890. **

Julius Vogel made his proposal in 1870 which stated that he would inject £10 million in to the New Zealand economy through development infrastructure and a migration scheme. He hoped that by injecting a large sum of money into the economy would result in increased private consumption. Dalziell describes his plan as “a bold expansionist policy” and we also see that Vogel’s scheme is one of New Zealand’s earliest examples of a modern day expansionary fiscal policy.

Throughout the 1860’s, the varying speeds of development of provinces was a cause for concern. The provinces which had plenty of land to sell prospered as the revenue from land sales went towards the development of infrastructure such as roads to increase trade “responsibility for colonisation and economic development was in their hands” (Northcott). However to be able to sell land, boundaries needed to be created and land needed to be surveyed and to do this money was required. The smaller provinces with less land found it hard to acquire capital and risked plummeting into bankruptcy while provinces such as Otago and Canterbury prospered.

In 1867, various Constitutions led to the diminishing power of the provinces to control their own finances, this gave more power to the central Government. Not only did it prevent the already wealthy provinces from getting richer it prevented the less prosperous provinces from descending into obscurity – this was effectively reducing inequality between the provinces. By doing this, the Central Government was gaining power over the provincial Governments and it would only be a matter of time before the Provinces were completely abolished.

In the decade leading up to the introduction of Vogel’s plan, New Zealand was going through a period of “economic stagnation” – this meant that it was hard for New Zealand’s economy to grow any more without major investment, but because New Zealand’s provinces were effectively isolated from one another, it was difficult to borrow money from overseas.

Vogel’s plan stated that overseas vendors would be more likely to lend a large amount of money if the provinces were abolished thus unifying New Zealand and that a £10 million injection into the economy would shift New Zealand out of the economic stagnation. By directly identifying these two problematic areas and offering simple solutions, Vogel’s plan gained a lot of support and was quickly implemented. By 1875, all of the central Government agreed that the provinces had to go and when parliament in June 1876, this was easily achieved. This meant that New Zealand was no longer operating separately but was under the control of one Government.

85% of the money borrowed from overseas under Vogel’s plan was spent on the development of infrastructure. However because Vogel was unaware of the lack of capital goods available in New Zealand at the time, the initial £10 million ballooned to £20 million. The 1400km of rail, 4000km of telegraph line + road, as well as several public buildings helped to achieve “a sense of greater national cohesion and unity” (Northcott). New Zealand’s manufacturing sector developed partially due to cheap labour and a permanent industrial work force appeared in cities and towns which marked the beginning of a New Zealand working class. 100 000 immigrants were assisted to New Zealand under the Vogel Scheme – this gave a huge boost to New Zealand’s population.

New Zealand was extremely dependent on Britain for trade and therefore the state of her economy. New Zealand’s economy was affected by any changes in price and demand in the British market. This combined with the collapse of the Bank of Glasgow in 1878 saw the New Zealand enter an economic decline in 1879. This period was known as “the long depression” and lasted throughout the 1880’s. A Depression was inevitable as New Zealand was going through an artificial boom period induced by an extremely large and borrowed injection and according to the business cycle, “booms and busts” occur naturally and cyclically as what goes up must come down.

In 1879, all Pakeha men were given the right to vote. Previously only those men who were land owners were allowed to the vote. Many transients did not meet the requirement which stated that they must have a permanent address. In 1879, all of those registered to vote only 53% did so, however, in 1887, this number increased to 64%. The increase in voter turn out can be accredited to the increased interest in politics due to the economic hardship of the 1880’s.

Vogel’s plan succeeded in unifying New Zealand politically, as the abolition of the provinces meant that New Zealand now had to work together as one and co-operate. This idea is further shown by the dramatic increase in voter turn out between 1879 and 1887 which proves that New Zealand was more politically unified than when the provinces existed as people, specifically Pakeha men were more involved in the affairs of the entire nation.

In terms of economics, Vogel’s plan may have significantly developed New Zealand’s manufacturing industry but it also hastened the onset of a depression and its catastrophic effects were extremely strong in 1890 as the depression lasted right up until the beginning of the 1890’s. Vogel’s loan of £20 million as well as interest accumulated on the loan was not paid off until the middle/end of the 1890’s and the people of New Zealand were the ones who had to pay it off through taxes.

The infrastructure developed as a result of Vogel’s plan, meant that transport and therefore communication between regions became easier and the immigration of 100,000 people through Vogel’s scheme helped to populate New Zealand and make her less “atomized” (Miles Fairburn). This made intraction with people in New Zealand less difficult.

In Conclusion, the diminishing power of the provincial governments caused by the Central Government trying to prevent an increase in inequality between regions, as well as the relentless “economic stagnation” New Zealand was experiencing led to Vogel’s plan being easily implemented. The consequences of the decision to implement the plan was wide spread across New Zealand Society. Although the effects on the social and political aspects on New Zealand life were unifying by 1890, the plan also resulted in an economic depression which New Zealand felt for many years afterwards.
 * History 3.4 – Decision Essay – VOGEL PLAN TERM 3 REVISION **

Intro: what is the Vogel Plan? Vogel Plan was to borrow £10 million from Britain and use it in NZ for assisting migrants to NZ and to develop infrastructure. NZ needed both in the 1870s – no roads, railways, bridges, telegraph etc. Govt initially approved £4 million in an unusually conservative move, but ultimately £22 million was borrowed.

· Provincialism à Due to NZ starting off as “beachhead settlements” thus national govt not practical o Stone: “downright rivalry” o Hawke’s Bay Superintendent: NZ was “a number of small kingdoms with no common unity among them” o Lack of co-operation between the provinces due to lack of consistent development § Canterbury and Otago did very well out of gold and pastoralism and hence had the resources to undergo public works and immigration schemes, esp considering gender imbalance – they had the resources to address this. South Island also had land as Governor Grey purchased 30 million acres in South Island § North Island only had war in the Taranaki and Waikato vs Kingitanga · NI was basically living off the riches of SI o Otago wanted to ‘secede from the union’ o There was hence a need to reduce regionalism and improve communications / transport between provinces § To give NZ a feeling of nationhood rather than provincial-hood. § To settle Pakeha on the hinterland of NZ (Fairburn: Great territorial expansion)

· NZ was too dependent on key primary industries: Gold, Wool, Timber o Stone: NZ not economically viable as it did not have a range of ‘staple exports’ – economy hence could not grow. This was especially apparent in NZ’s lack of secondary industries o Gardner: “Most of NZ’s economy was on the sheep’s back.” § Wool exports quintupled in 1860-1870 o Gold was not sustainable: a non-renewable resource – that also only brought only men to NZ. § Stone: “Gold was petering out; wool was not enough” o NZ had too many people for a pure pastoral economy but not enough for industrial growth in any sense § Secondary industry very little: more people in gold than in flour mills, brewries, textiles etc. combined (Dalziel) o A need to reduce reliance on primary exports – hence Vogel bringing in people

· Economics o Lack of infrastructure in NZ hindering growth § Lack of ports and wharves § Northcott and Ofner: “easier to transport flour from Waikato to Sydney than to the Wairarapa” · Hence a lack of domestic markets o Dependence on the Br markets § Lack of local markets for goods § Very vulnerable to conditions abroad – specifically Britain § Gardner: “If NZ was over-committed to Britain, the reverse was also true” o HENCE, Vogel required to boost markets, domestic and intl

· Vogel led to Long Depression? o Vogel set precedent for borrowing; lead was followed by the public <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">o <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">Dalziel: “borrowed millions diffused an air of properity that affected not only the govt but also the people” § Land speculation: speculating for land close to railways o 1876: Money difficult to borrow o 1879 Fall of City of Glasgow Bank – both masked signs of the Depression § Loan recalls led to local bankruptcies o Vogel loans made NZ sensitive to overseas conditions <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;">§ Traditional historians e.g<span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">. Condliffe and Sutch argues that Vogel’s borrowings got out of hand hence caused an economic catastrophe. · Social ramifications: larrikinism, wife desertion, exodus

<span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 8pt;">· Revisionist arguments – <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Hawke / Dalziel o Economic stagnation – no real fall in GDP o Timber industry thrived in Auckland for railways and buildings… Auckland did OK o 1882: refrigeration: milk/meat <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;">§ <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">Belich: “Knight in icy armour that rode to the rescue of the NZ economy in the 1880s” § <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">“protein bridge” argument re: Britain <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">o <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">Hawke argues that: <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;">§ <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">Depression was a worldwide phenomenon <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;">§ <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">Vogel provided the groundwork such that when refrigeration came, NZ had the infrastructure and man-power to take advantage of it

· Abolition of Provinces 1876 o Vogel Scheme came about because of provinces lack of ability to gain loans for themselves o “pork barrel” politics re: Vogel loans <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;">§ <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 9pt;">Dalziel: “provinces joined in an unseeming scramble to acquire as much money for railways as its neighbour, regardless of its needs” o Provinces were wasting resources: mismanagement <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;">§ Although development of railways (1139 mi by 1879) helped open up domestic economy the railways were still a <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">“disjointed, incomplete skeleton” o Provinces (Otago and Canterbury) refused to provide security for Vogel loans in terms of forests and railway land – last straw

· Political participation o Concerns re: economy o No local govt anymore meant House of Reps more important o Universal male suffrage 1876 o Vogel infrastructure lessened regionalism o à INCREASED POLITICAL PARTICIPATION § More credible government § Helped Liberals get into power in 1890 election because of economic hardships in the 1880s, blamed on the Continuous Ministry

· Social consequences o 100000 immigrants to New Zealand § Many recruited from Scandinavia – <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">whole villages came out per Dalziel · In demand due to skills in farming, trades and forestry – they cleared land in remote areas o Landless at home o Vogel agents also tried bringing from Br people skilled in bricklaying, carpentry etc to build up NZ’s secondary industries o Vogel + other immigrants meant society was <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">less atomised per Fairburn o Inc immigrants means more demand on land § From Maori in North Island: more confiscations e.g. Parihaka § Breaking up of large SI estates owned by the <span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Southern Gentries of Eldred-Grigg

=<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Liberals OT** =
 * GRADE M **
 * __Essay Question No 6__ **

The Liberal party was elected to power in the so-called “watershed” election of 1890. With Balance as their first leader the Liberals were elected due to an increased demand for Government to take a role in issues of land, welfare and social problems and issues related to depression and “Old World Evils” where previous Governments had failed. Consequences of the Liberals in power include a shift in political focus from issues mainly to do with economics. To more progressive issues to do with welfare, land and labour.

The Liberal Government was elected in 1890, in an election that was not considered to be of a clear cut nature. The election of the Liberals suggested a change in both the desires of the people of New Zealand and of politics as a whole. Ballance, described by contemporary W.P. Reeves as being the most “unpretentious, unassuming” man he knew, was the Liberals first Premier. The make-up of his party was very different to the group of “privileged” politicians who had previously dominated Government before them. A large number were from the middle working class, and Reeves was the only one with a tertiary degree. Historian Hamer describes Reeves in particular as a “new brand of politician.”

The first factor that led to the election of Liberals in 1890 was the social problems that existed in New Zealand Society. In 1885 it was revealed by Waddell in his sermon “The Sin of Cheapness” that sweating, a form of worker exploitation for very low pay and an “Old World Evil” in the eyes of British settlers, existed in New Zealand in mills and factories. There was also concern over the welfare of the elderly and poor in New Zealand. A third social ill that dominated many towns was Drunkenness, and domestic violence associated with it, that had been an issue for New Zealand society since settlers had first arrived. There was a sense by the 1890’s that social problems had reached the point where Government should be taking measures to help them, and the Liberal Party seemed to have potential to do so where other Governments had failed.

A second factor, closely related to the first, was the depression and problems associated with it. The depression in New Zealand, sporadically in existence from about the 1870’s onwards had led to the existence of much poverty and hardship. Many women were forced to work either as well as, husbands, or in the case that the latter failed to find work. There was a feeling of long term discontent with the economic situation and depression in New Zealand, and people began to more and more feel that the Government was required, yet failing to bring the country out of the depression and return economic stability.

This desire for action by the Government links directly to the third factor which contributed to Liberal election: the failure of previous premiers and Governments to help the nation and deliver what the people desired. Since Central Government took total control the same “continuous Ministry” had been in power with different Premiers. Such premiers as Vogel, and Atkinson had attempted to introduce retrenchment, increase tariffs and halve property tax to aid the country. All of these had largely failed to help, and the desire of the people for the government to look at social problems had not been met. This therefore caused voters to vote for the Liberals who it seemed would deal with matters such as Labour and Welfare, and private land ownership, where it seemed other Governments had not.

One major consequence of the Liberal’s in power, was the right to vote for women granted in 1893. Many women had been actively advocating for this right sonce the mid 1880’s but previous Governments had refused to grant. It. Though the Premier of the time, Seddon did not support it, the bill, introduced by Stark was passed in 1883, due to pressure from many (though not all) Liberals.

A second consequence of the Liberals in power were the Labour reforms. These, all introduced by Reeves brought about an increased equality in the workforce and removal of sweating for example. The Labour laws were: The Factories Act (1884), The Truck Act, The Arbitery and Industrial Conciliation Act (1884), the 1884 Employers Liability Act (1884), and the Hop and Shop Assistants Act. Within them, these Acts regulated work conditions, hours, pay and gave employers liability for accidents. According to King the liberals laid down the foundation for the welfare state through these Labour reforms.

A third consequence of Liberals election came in the form of land reforms. These were: the tax and Income Assessment Act (1891), the Lease in Perpetuity Act (1893), the Advances for Settlers Act (1893), and the Lands for Settlement Act (1893). Between them they encouraged close settlement, gave money for the Government to purchase land, encouraged large runholders to subdivide land and gave out loans for settlers to improved land. Absentee land owners were also penalised. These aims successfully encouraged small-scale farming and stimulated the economy though Historians such as Henare do argue that land owners were ready to subdivide and sell and in fact it was luck and market trends that the Liberals took credit for.

A further consequence described as “pioneering” by King was the introduction of the Old Age Pension giving pension to the elderly population.

In summary, the Liberal period of power is described by historians as being one of experimentation. Elected into power as a result of dissatisfaction with social problems, depression and previous governments failure to help New Zealand economy, the Liberals proceeded to change the focus of the nation to more progressive land, welfare and working issues.

Explain the factors that led to many New Zealand voters deciding to elect a Liberal Government in 1890. Evaluate the consequences of this decision on New Zealand politics and society until 1900.

· Increasingly politically aware and active population since the abolition of the Provinces in 1876. · The increasing importance of central government to the lives of New Zealanders. · Acts of parliament saw the growth of government departments and an increasing bureaucracy to manage the work. · Social and economic problems of the country were now expected to be solved by legislation, as Vogel had initiated in the 1870s. · The Long Depression and the inability of Harry Atkinson and his “Scarecrow Ministry” to respond in any meaningful way to it. · The Depression widened the gap between migrants’ dreams for a better life and the reality of their lives in New Zealand. The Depression revealed some of the myths about New Zealand being a land of plenty. There were old world evils in the New World: strikes, sweating, poor working conditions, poverty, crime, suicide, and great difficulties for people wanting to get onto the land. · The Liberals promised security, land and welfare, and an end to the industrial disputes that had frozen the New Zealand economy at one time during the depression. · The Long Depression had sparked the need for unions and for improved working conditions for the masses. · The 1880s saw a developing active population involved in campaigns for change on a variety of issues such as sweating, female franchise, prohibition, etc.
 * The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: **

· The end of the “Continuous Ministry” and the birth of party politics. The Liberals are supposedly New Zealand’s first political party, but were the previous administrations really as “continuous” as the Liberals made out? The various ministries of the 1870s and 1880s had quite different policies. It has been argued that the phrase “continuous ministry” was coined by the Liberals when they were in power so that they could blame the non-Liberals for everything that had happened in the past. · The Liberals gained enough support to put through a legislative programme (the so-called “Social Laboratory”) that included Old Age Pensions, advances to settlers, new standards for working conditions, breaking up the “great estates” (both South Island Pakeha and North Island Māori) and industrial arbitration, but how radical were they really? Their sympathy for the underdog didn’t extend to Māori. Māori were denied the advances given to settlers and were eligible to only half the Old Age Pension. McKenzie’s land policies led to the huge amounts of Māori land loss in the North Island. · It has also been argued that the much heralded “closer settlement” legislation of the Liberals might not have been as significant as McKenzie claimed. Private sub-division opened up much more land than state repurchase. The Government was offered much more land than it bought. This eagerness to sell was due to the fact that the estates were often heavily mortgaged and the depression had reduced the value of the land. The invention of refrigeration made smaller farms economically viable.
 * The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: **

Important Liberal reforms that the candidate could refer to include:

· Truck Act 1891 meant that truckies had to be paid in cash, not in kind. · Dept of Labour created to inspect factories and help people find work. · Factories Act 1894 restricted working hours for women, girls and boys; set holiday entitlements; and ensured the safety of the workers in the work place. · Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 provided a mechanism for the settlement of industrial disputes.
 * Labour **

· Land and Income Tax 1891. · Dept of Agriculture developed to educate farmers 1892. · Lands for Settlement Act 1892 empowered the state to buy land for resettling small farmers. · Advances to settlers Act 1894 – enabled Pākehā farmers to develop their land. · Large-scale Māori land purchases.
 * Land **

· Old age pensions were set up by the Liberals in 1898. · Women were given full suffrage in 1893 under the Liberals (and despite its Premier’s stalling tactics). · Equal grounds for divorce for both men and women 1898. · James Carroll became the first Māori Native Minister 1899. · Political / economic. · The Liberals fought and won a battle against the governor’s interference in national politics. They were therefore seen as more democratic and more responsive to the people. · The Legislative council or Upper House was by and large an anachronism by this stage and the Liberals reduced their powers even more.
 * Social Changes **

BELOW IS A LEVEL 2 ESSAY ON THE LIBERALS BUT VERY GOOD

An interesting essay using a New Zealand history topic.

** GRADE E **

In the early 1890s, New Zealand experienced the influence of Liberalism. A historical force born out of the needs of ordinary people, its influence on the New Zealand Liberal Party was to direct them into a series of actions in order to rectify the extensive social and economic problems the country faced at the time. The consequences of the Liberal reforms were immense, as they significantly changed New Zealand by introducing improved living conditions and greater equality.

Liberalism can be seen as the pressure of a somewhat broad spectrum of political ideals, including the use of state information to extend the opportunities available to ordinary people, the removal of class barriers and a humanitarian policy. The pressure of social conditions on New Zealand’s voting population led a group of politicians including Seddon, Ward, Reeves, Makenzie, Balance and Carroll to form the Liberal Party in 1890. They were driven by both the impact of Liberalism on their own indealogies and the need to capture voters who had been influenced by liberalism. Historian Michael King notes that “they did not come to power with the backing of a coherent philosophical blueprint”, but instead acted according to Liberal ideals to ‘set the country right’.

One of the key aspects of Liberalism is that it involves the use of state information to force change, this as New Zealand required Government action to alleviate the effects of the ‘long depression’. Liberalism had an impact on the Liberal Party. This need was due to the fact that after a widespread subdivision of land under Julius Vogel in 1870, much of the land had been bought by speculators. When land prices fell they could not afford to sell it yet did not utilise it to provide goods and work, thus unemployment was high and the country was not producing goods at a great enough rate to support the growing population (it had risen 100,000 to 500,000 in 40 years). So as many voters (including potential farmers and the unemployed) desired state information they provided the climate in which Liberalism flourished, and a movement which influenced the Liberals to advocate change in order to attain votes was created.

Further aspects of Liberalism include the policy of humanitarianism and extending opportunities (giving people a ‘fair go’). During the 1890s working conditions were very poor, as shown by Reverend Waddell (who exposed sweated labour) and the 1890 Maritime Strike which failed but “penalised New Zealands ports and waterways for months” (Michael King). Thus the liberal ruling encapsulated by the workers unions, which were driven into politics because of the need for improved conditions, led the Liberal Party to be formed. The need for Government intervention into this matter (and the unemployment conditions which created it) were key aspects of the historical force of Liberalism which influenced the Party.

A further group which supported liberalism, and this led the Liberal Party in their actions, were the old aged. Many had lost their savings in the depression and, being the first generation of Pakeha settlers, had little family to fall back on. Their need for a liberal humanitarian Government led the Liberals in their actions as they were a large group of voters.

The actions of the other Liberal speakers in New Zealand was another way in which the historical force impacted the Liberal Party. Liberal idealists such as Henry George (who advocated a single tax on land) and Edward Bellamy (who wanted land redistribution based on socialism) helped to create a climate in which voters supported social reform, particularly of the kind which the Liberals supported. Furthermore the womens movement (led by the Suffragists under Kate Sheppard and supported by original Liberal leader Balance) also led to support for social change from some groups.

One of the key aspects of Liberalism is that it is found in a democratic system; the Liberals were first and foremost a democratic Party (the first organised party in New Zealand). Consequently the actions they took in order to bring about change were democratic; chiefly a series of Acts passed by Parliament. In order to begin change the Liberals brought about reforms which allowed for small farmers to attain land. The 1891 Land and Income Tax Act increased taxation on large estate holders who were unproductive. To speed up the resettlement process the 1894 Lands for Settlement Act allowed the Government to purchase land and split it up into small blocks : the liberals subdivided 530,000 acres during their terms. Furthermore the 1896 Advances to Settlers Act allowed settlers access to loans at a decreased rate (finance minister Joseph Ward was behind this). In addition 22 and 999 year leases decreased the upfront price of property. The consequences of these changes were immense – production greatly increased as a small farming economy was set up. Thus the impact of Liberalism was seen in removing class boundaries and improving living conditions through democratic reform.

In addition, the Liberal Party took a series of steps in order to improve working conditions in New Zealand. This included the 1894 Shop Assistants Act and 1896 Advances to Settlers Act which increased mandatory conditions for workers – concurrent with the humanitarian ideology. Furthermore the 1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act (driven by Joseph Ward) introduced ‘consolidation’ boards in each area which settled legal disputes between unions and employers in an unbiased manner. Thus the impact of Liberalism in giving people a ‘fair go’ and improving opportunity can be seen. These reforms enjoyed huge success, as the country saw a decade without strikes (an international record) as a consequence.

The social changes brought about by the Liberal Party were immense – New Zealand went from a position of depression to having the 4th highest standard of living in the world. These reforms included improved healthcare, as the Liberals supported the creation of St Helens hospitals (dealing with childbirth) directed by Grace O’Neill and the Plunkett Society led by Frederic Truby King. Furthermore women gained the vote in 1891, the first women in the world to do so. This was a result of a ‘free conscious vote’ allowed by Seddon to honour the death of Balance (but also to assert himself as the next leader). As a consequence of the progressive nature of the society at the time New Zealand was often referred to as the ‘social laboratory of the world’.

An interesting consequence of the Liberal reforms was an increase in social divides over time, something which ultimately led to their downfall in 1922. Maori people in general missed out in the reforms because most did not want to subdivide or farm tribal land. The Liberals however thought that it should be split up, purchasing 1.2 million hectares of it. In addition there was a divide between new farmers who were not happy with the high rate of taxation required to run the welfare reforms (in particular the old age pension introduced in 1898) and the working class.

Historians are divided about the consequences of the Liberal actions on New Zealand’s identity. James Belich believes that New Zealanders underwent ‘re-colonialisation’ because the dependency on the British Markets for exports (joined by a protein bridge). However both Michael King and Keith Sinclair argue that the reforms led to a developing sense of identity, as New Zealand society underwent changes unseen elsewhere in the world. What is certain is that their impact on New Zealand was immense, as they completely reformed society.

The growth of Liberalism in New Zealand had lasting impacts on the country. Its influence on the Liberal Party, and later the Liberal Government, was to drive them towards social reform. As an enduring consequence of their actions New Zealand still has a strong farming sector and a society in which humanitarian ideals are prevalent.


 * EXCELLENCE GRADE **

= __Northern War ON OT__ =

= __Land Wars ON JP__ =

= __Kingitanga ON AP HD__ =

=**<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">__Treaty MB OT HD FH HP TB AV__ **=

AS3.4:- Treaty of Waitangi Question This achievement standard involves writing an essay describing **//factors that contribute to a significant decision//** made in an historical setting, explaining and evaluating the decision, and recognising historical narratives in relation to the decision made. · // Accurately describe the __historical context__ in which people made a decision. // · // Accurately and perceptively explain __factors that contributed__ to the decision. // · // Evaluate convincingly __consequences__ of the decision made. // · // Evaluate perceptively __historical narratives__ in relation to the decision made. //


 * Decision: ** For some Maori and Britain to enter into formal relations through the Treaty of Waitangi, and the consequences of this by 1850.

· Growing lawlessness and alarmist reports from missionaries and Busby, along with concerns raised by capitalists about the security of their investments. · Concerns over the implications of the Wakefield settlements. · The Declaration of Independence required legal nullification via a new agreement (Treaty) if Britain was to intervene. · The ‘foreign threat’ as perceived by Busby eg America, France. · A sense of ‘inevitability’ on the part of the British that their nationals always ended up being the vanguard of British colonialism and thus the spread of ‘superior’ British culture. · Pressure from the humanitarian movements (Church Missionary Society and Aborigine Protection Society). · Growing lawlessness and expectations that the benefits of contact would continue (eg land sales, trade) but in a more controlled way. · Entering into an association with the world’s greatest power. · Rangatiratanga appeared to be guaranteed in Article 2 of the Treaty and missionaries emphasised the personal nature (covenant) of the relationship between the Queen and Maori signatories. · Some tribes thought that the signing of the Treaty was merely a commercial transaction (Wakefield cites a case of a chief in the Wellington area believing that he was signing for receipt of tobacco and blankets). · Inter-hapu links and rivalries: during the Musket Wars Nga Puhi established links with some tribes down the North Island – they followed Nga Puhi’s lead. Other tribes did not want Nga Puhi monopolising the Crown as they had the missionaries. || The post-Treaty period saw an effort by the Governors to convert nominal sovereignty into substantive. For most Maori up to 1850 this had little impact, although land sales accelerated under Grey/McLean and immigration increased under the Wakefield schemes. · declaring British sovereignty over New Zealand (after more signatures were gathered). · applying his understanding of pre-emption to land purchases and initiating investigations into pre-1840 land sales. He resisted pressure from both the Colonial Office and settlers to take control of ‘waste lands’ (uncultivated/’unused’ Maori land). · issuing a proclamation to prevent further felling of kauri in the North, imposing customs’ duties on shipping, and attempting to extend British law beyond ‘beachheads’.
 * ** __Historical Context/Factors contributing to the decision__ **
 * Britain **
 * Maori who signed **
 * ** __Consequences__ **
 * // Hobson asserted his understanding of the Crown’s authority under the Treaty by: //**

· Resisting settler pressure in Wellington to punish Te Rauparaha after the Wairau Affray. · Attempting to finance the new colony by waiving pre-emption and introducing a land sales tax. · Engaging Heke and Kawiti in war in the North (with limited success). · Engaging Heke and Kawiti in war in the North (with more success than Fitzroy) and Te Rauparaha in the Wellington area. · Accelerating the purchase of Maori land (and thus the spread of British law). · Resisting the 1846 Constitution, purportedly because of concerns about disenfranchisement of Maori and their unpreparedness for parliamentary democracy. · Resisting settler efforts to assert their perceived authority (Wairau, 1843). · Engaging with British law where the Maori and Pakeha worlds intersected (Maketu’s trial and execution). · Continuing with land sales and the (initial) encouragement of more settlers. · Engaging the British Crown in war where conflicting assertions of sovereignty developed (Northern and Southern Wars). || · ** Keith Sinclair ** : emphasises the missionaries’ humanitarian motives in mistranslating Article 1. · ** Ross and Belgrave ** : similar - a well-meaning deception by Henry Williams in the translation. · ** Walker and Ross ** : a deliberate ‘fudging’ of the translation of sovereignty. · ** McKenzie and Owens ** : the discussion on the Treaty was much more important to the Maori than the text. · ** Peter Adams ** : Article 3 part of a British goal of eventual assimilation of Maori · ** Belich ** : Britain reluctantly pulled into NZ by settler, investor and humanitarian concerns. ||
 * // Fitzroy asserted his understanding of the Crown’s authority under the Treaty by: //**
 * // Grey asserted his understanding of the Crown’s authority under the Treaty by: //**
 * // Various Maori asserted their understanding of the Treaty by: //**
 * ** __Historiography__ **
 * For some Maori and Britain to enter into formal relations through the Treaty of Waitangi, and the consequences of this by 1850.**

The decision by both Maori and Pakeha to sign the Treaty of Waitangi developed as problems arose in the contact period. Pakeha wanted to formalise a friendship and establish sovereignty, while Maori wanted control of British ‘trouble markers’ and in the Maori interpretation there was no loss of authority. Consequences of this misunderstanding of each others intentions led to conflict, like in the Wiarau Affray, and Hone Heke’s rebellion in 1845 in the North.

The contact period, around 1800 to 1840, was a defining time for Maori and Pakeha relations. The first main feature of contact surrounded trade, as Maori and Pakeha swapped goods and services. Iron, pigs and potatoes was what Maori originally demanded, although by 1810, muskets was the only acceptable trade item. Belich quotes “Flax, timber and whales; seals, sex and souls” to be the main cause of Britains initial interest in New Zealand. Missionaries began arriving, with the quest of ‘civilising then christianising’ Maori, although had little success at first. Maori saw Pakeha as a great source of ‘mana’. Having a European near the iwi brought trade, and knowledge. It was only in the 1830’s Maori began to convert to Christianity, as it was believed this was the answer to literacy? Maori saw being literate as necessary way to unlock Pakeha knowledge. By 1833 thirty thousand Maori had converted. New Zealand’s population was largely a Maori dominated one, with ninety thousand compared to only two thousand Pakeha in 1840.

Also, by the late 1830’s tension between the two races began to show, in Britain there was a feeling that more should be done to protect Maori from damaging effects of contact. A humanitarian movement, Church Missionary Society was sending reports to Britain, at times exaggerated, regarding the Maori and Pakeha. In 1831 James Busby was appointed to protect Maori, although he lacked authority to enforce decisions. In 1835 a declaration of independence was signed by thirty five northern chiefs, which asserted Maori claims to sovereignty. Busby organised this declaration for several reasons, one being to set up a Maori government, known as ‘United Tribes’. Although a cohesive government was never actually formed as inter-hapu fighting prevented it. The flag, however, of ‘United Tribes’ was acknowledged by Britain, and in Orange’s words “Recognition of the flag (by Britain) became, in Maori understanding, acknowledgement of the mana of New Zealand and a special mark of Maori identity”. The Declaration of Independence was an important document as New Zealand was regarded as an independent nation. Although seen as a short-term achievement this brought about future complications.

(The Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, was signed by the British as it was believed to be the best option after the ‘Declaration of Independence’ five years earlier. Britain felt they needed to formalise its friendly links as a ‘protector’ of New Zealand. Besides this, they needed a formal treaty to legally secure their sovereignty). Pressure was also mounting by settlers who wanted their own government. James Busby had no real power, and wanted to establish British law, to avert ‘trouble-makers’ involved in inter-hapu rivalries. Historian Adams claims a ‘background of concerns about lawlessness’ was a major factor in Britains agreement to a treaty. There was problems growing within New Zealand, as Britains grip from the opposite side of the world, was not enough to control the mounting issues.

Also, Britain felt growing pressure to formalise ties to New Zealand from several other areas. There was a sense of obligation as Britain saw itself as the ‘superior culture’, and it was destiny to reign throughout the ‘unenlightened’ world. “Britain needed to be seen to be doing the right thing in its treaty with Maori, although always had its own motives foremost”, describing Britain as being concerned not with ‘savages’ but its own interests. Britain felt pressure not only from home, but from foreign countries also, who had interests in New Zealand shores. Already a Frenchman had bought eight hundred acres and proclaimed himself ‘King of New Zealand’. Investment buyers in Sydney and Britain also had interests in New Zealand. Timber mills owned by large companies were protected also by Britain signing the Treaty.

However, Maori had largely different reasons for signing a Treaty with Britain. Impressed by the power of Britain, and aware of the nickname “Ruler of the Seas’, Maori saw Britain as a good protector and partner. Besides, the French also had interest in New Zealand, and Maori were all to aware of the ill-treatment of Tahitians, so saw Britain, perhaps, as the lesser of two evils. There were also many opportunities that were mutually beneficial to both races if Maori signed the Treaty, and they were keen to continue a trade relationship. Possibly the deciding factor however, was Maori believed there to be no loss of sovereignty if they signed, while Britain also thought the same. Maori were at this stage numerically, culturally and militarily dominant. “Limited Maori understanding of just how many Pakeha would come”, is an accurate statement about this, quoted by Keith Sinclair.

Also, Maori had other concerns that persuaded chiefs to sign. The inter-hapu rivalries was still more important to Maori iwi than the Pakeha. As there were only two thousand there were not as larger a concern, especially in the northern regions. “Inter-hapu rivalries and alliances meant many non-northern tribes signed out of fear of mission out”, Henare states, showing that Maori were not primarily troubled by the Pakeha. Although the Eureopean lawlessness in certain areas was becoming a growing problem. With no official law in place, or way to enforce law, Pakeha increasingly showed disregard for Maori ways and beliefs. It was thought best if Britain looked after their own people. The Treaty was believed to be a guarantee of protection, rather than the handing over of sovereignty. Maori saw this as a way of honouring the sacred relationship there was with the Queen at that time. This misunderstanding, differing interpretations meant the Treaty of Waitangi was not signed for what the British believed it to be, but that the Maori saw it as a combination of two mutual powers living in one area.

The consequences of the Treaty of Waitangi was a series of problems and growing issues from the different interpretations. Land sales became a large area of conflict, and Maori confidence in Pakeha was upset. The ‘Wasteland issue’ was caused by British Hobson instructed by the Crown to seize control of ‘wasteland’ but Maori saw such things as wasteland and this began the growth in tension. Investigations of land purchases stated, and excess land claims resulted in ‘surplus land’ and it became property of the Crown. Orange states this ‘seriously shook Maori confidence’, as Busby had assured chiefs at Waitangi “all land unjustly held would be returned to Maori”.

Also, the Wairau Affray of 1843 was a result of land sales and misinterpretations of the Treaty. Pakeha settlers in Wellington tried to take control of land that Maori claimed ownership of. Ngati Toa was suggested an investigation, but was attacked anyway. Ngati Toa killed twenty-two Pakeha as a result of the intrusion, and this ‘massacre’ was exaggerated and news of disagreements spread quickly, even though the governor found Pakeha to be responsible.

Another cause of tension was Hone Heke and Pakeha disagreements in 1845, near Paihia. heke was an influential chief at Waitangi, who believed he had Pakeha support. He felt, by 1845, the Pakeha had infringed his chiefly mana, by moving the capital to Auckland, and draining the north of economic stability. He demonstrated his thoughts by repeatedly felling the flagstaff with the Union Jack, at Russell. His defiance was not violent, but politically. The difficulties faced by Pakeha and Maori were increasing. War broke out as Governor Fitzroy asserted his authority.

Governor Gray, appointed in 1845, was a temporary solution, but didn’t serve the race relation problems. A great political, Gray managed to pacify Maori fears, for a short time. His understanding of Maori ‘Pursuit of Mana’, fluent Te Reo Maori skills and involvement in decision-making gave Grey a great appearance. Although, on behalf of Britain, tried to exercise the goals of sovereignty, and union of Maori and Pakeha. He acquired thirty million acres of land in the South Island in his time as Governor. Through these land purchases, Pakeha changed from a nominal (or notional) sovereignty to a substantive one. This was perhaps the most crucial moment in the New Zealand race relations.

The Treaty of Waitangi was signed by Maori and Pakeha but for differing reasons. The British wanted sovereignty of an increasingly problem colony, while Maori wanted a control over British ‘trouble-makers’ and an insurance of protection by Britain. The consequences of this was conflict and tension, as seen by the Wairau Affray and Governor Grey’s political skills changing New Zealand from a nominal to a substantive sovereignty.

=__**<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Taranaki MB JP AP HP TB AV **__=
 * Waikato MB AP HP TB AV**
 * Topic Two: Essay Three 2007 **

Explain the factors that contributed to the decision made by Governor Thomas Gore Browne to pursue the purchase of the Waitara block in 1860. Evaluate the consequences of this decision on race relations in Taranaki up to 1863

· In the period after the initial Pākehā settlement of New Plymouth, several blocks of land had been purchased from Taranaki and Te Ati Awa hapū. Most of this land was inland and covered in bush. Pākehā settlers were eager to acquire the more fertile land around the Waitara River, which flowed into a river mouth harbour. New Plymouth lacked a decent harbour. · The settlers were jealous that 4000 Māori in Taranaki owned 800 000 hectares while the original New Zealand Company purchase for New Plymouth was just 1400 hectares. · In one of his dispatches, Gore Browne alleged that Māori had far more land than they needed and that the settlers would get hold of it //“recte si possint, si non quocunque modo”// (“fairly, if possible, if not, then by any means at all”). · The establishing of Kingitanga in 1858 was viewed by most Pākehā as a land-holding movement. This was a time when the populations of Auckland and New Plymouth were increasing. Governor Thomas Gore Browne believed that Māori needed to be taught a “sharp lesson”. · Governor Gore Browne believed the rumours that Māori who wanted to sell land were being intimidated by a pupuri whenua land league. In 1859, he had announced that any Māori wanting to sell land were able to do so without the consent of their chiefs. (This was a direct breach of Article Two of the Treaty, which affirmed chiefly authority.) · Governor Gore Browne saw the dispute over the sale of the Waitara block as an issue of sovereignty. When Te Teira offered the land for sale, the paramount chief of the area, Wiremu Kingi Te Rangitake, objected. He argued that Te Teira didn’t have the mana or support needed to make the sale.
 * The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: **

· When the survey began, Wiremu Kingi’s supporters disrupted it by pulling out the survey pegs. · In February, Governor Gore Browne declared martial law and troops were sent in from New Plymouth. Waitara was occupied by troops, and Kingi’s pa Te Kohia was bombarded. The Te Ati Awa garrison abandoned the pa with little loss. · Wiremu Kingi had not initially supported the establishment of Kingitanga, but he now sought an alliance with Te Wherowhero. Kingitanga sent a force of volunteers to support Kingi in Taranaki. This was significant as it showed that Kingitanga would support Māori landholders in their disputes against the British. (Governor Grey later used Kingitanga’s involvement in the Taranaki War as part of his excuse to invade the Waikato). · On 27 June 1860, Te Ati Awa and their allies inflicted some heavy losses on British troops at the twin pa of Puketakauere and Onukukaitara near Waitara. On 6 November the British troops gained their first success when they drove Ngāti Haua and Waikato from their defences at Mahoetahi. · In July 1860, Governor Gore Browne convened the Kohimarama Conference, at which he attempted to undermine Wiremu Kingi and the Kingitanga (neither Kingi nor Te Wherowhero were invited) by having other North Island chiefs reaffirm aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi. · For almost three months, early in 1861, General Pratt led more than 2000 men on an advance by the means of a sap (trench) and a series of redoubts against Māori occupying pa and rifle pits at the bush edge on the bank of the Waitara River. · The conflict remained unresolved as neither side was strong enough to defeat the other, and a ceasefire was agreed in March 1861. Māori continued to control the Tataraimaka block but lost control of some of the land around Waitara. · When Governor Grey reoccupied the Tataraimaka block before giving up land at Waitara, there were further incidents around New Plymouth. · Tension continued in the late 1860s with the rise of the Pai Marire prophetic movement.
 * The candidate’s response to the second part of essay question could include **

=__** Women vote JP AP OT HD FH HP **__=


 * Essay Question No 6: Pakeha **

The decision made by the central government to grant women the vote in 1893 was contributed by many factors that gave women more independence. The Womens Christian Temperance Union which was established in 1885, was greatly influential in the decision, along with feminists who created added pressure on the government. The changing role of women in New Zealand also meant that women were more important in New Zealand society and therefore their contribution to society had to be noted. As a result of winning the vote, women’s lives in New Zealand changed significantly by gaining new rights giving them more independence, the introduction of temperance into society and the continuing campaign’s which women were a part of.

The Womens Christian Temperance Union had an immense effect on New Zealand society by contributing greatly to women gaining the vote. The WCTU was established in 1885 by the notable figure Kate Sheppard. The aims of the WCTU consisted of bringing purity to the home, education for children and welfare of prostitutes and homeless. They mainly focussed on children and women. The main issue that was associated with the WCTU was the pushing for prohibition. As alcohol was a part of a male dominated society, women from the Union wanted to eliminate alcohol from society where between 1872 and 1878, 6% of Pakeha male deaths were caused by alcohol. If women were able to gain the right to vote then they could pass the bill of prohibition. The WCTU was also an opportunity for women to voice their opinions. The WCTU was responsible for two major petitions for women gaining the vote where in 1891, 10,000 signatures were gathered however was unsuccessful. This was then followed by a major petition in 1892 where 20,000 signatures were gathered. The WCTU was the major force in women getting the vote by uniting women to voice their concerns in an effective manner.

The role of women greatly changed in a New Zealand society showing how important they were which was a significant factor to gaining the vote. Due to many reasons New Zealand was greatly a male dominated society where in 1881 there were 656 women for every 1000 men which included children. Charlotte Mcdonald a respected historian said that “there were too many men, too few women”. As women were greatly outnumbered they therefore had a great choice in marriage in New Zealand and as settlements in New Zealand were intended on having the family as central, their presence in society was highly valued. Women were seen as the sense of circle in the household however were generally hardworking in terms of the work they did. Hannah Barrand was an example of this whose tasks including cooking, cleaning, farming, garden work, salting pork, preserving food and looking after her family. In 1879 depression hit New Zealand and as women carried on with their tasks they did not have the option of gaining comfort from the family as they were far away in places such as Britain. Instead women had to draw inner strength. Women were also required to perform other tasks such as running businesses and farming. It was therefore necessary that women gained some recognition for the work they had done. Women were also quite strong as they had to face great hardship. In 1883 it was found that 5 in every 1000 live childbirths resulted in death for the mother.

Feminists that were present in New Zealand also greatly contributed to women gaining the vote by adding more pressure on the central government. Feminists such as Mary Muller who wrote “Femmina” in the Nelson Examiner, voice their opinions in a strong manner in 1850’s to gain more independence for women. Mary Muller’s articles created a wider attention to the concerns of women. The visit of prohibitionist Mary Leavitt in 1885 was also an important influence for women gaining the vote. Her visit promoted the WCTU and gave women inspiration in to gaining independence and rights. Acts such as the contagious disease act of 1869 were mainly sexually driven and were unfair to women. Feminists gave inspiration to underspoken females who feared voicing their opinions.

Gaining the vote changed the lives of women immensely between 1893 and 1900 but giving them new rights. The most obvious new right to women was the ability to vote in elections however they could still not stand in elections. The ability to vote however did not change too much in respect to actual voting where most females voted the same as men generally. Importantly the age of consent was raised from 12 to 16 offering greater protection to children and especially girls preventing them from being introduced to a life of prostitution at such an early age. In 1898 women also gained right to equal divorce meaning that they too could choose to have divorce where previously it was only men who generally could decide. This gave women more independence and self-reliance as they could be in control of their life. Then this was also followed in 1898 by the right of maintenance to women in separation. Raewyn Dalziel believes that women gaining the vote was not attempt to give up their normal duties but for recognition of the work they offered in society. This means that the rights offered to women were of recognition of their hardwork and importance in a new New Zealand society. Patricia Grimshaw does not agree with this view and believes the gaining of the vote was an attempt to break away from their pioneering past.

The inclusion of temperance in New Zealand was also a result of women gaining the vote which meant the lives of women could be more family based. The restriction of alcohol meant that society could be more successful without the inclusion of excessive drinking. Myles Fairburn believed that alcohol was creating an atomised society where few social bonds were held. In 1893 when the local option was introduced, it meant that alcohol could be restricted where areas such as Ashburton became dry. Alcohol posed a great threat to the family and women as it was a hinderance financially and negatively contributed to the family with violence. Therefore restriction of alcohol allowed women to be part of a civilised society. Erik Olsen reiterates this by stating that “the family was central not merely to the rhetorical invention of New Zealand as a new world society but also the socio practice.”

Although women gained the vote in 1893, this did not mean that they stopped voicing their opinions as they formed new groups and ways to voice opinions. The National Council of Women was established in 1896 greatly by Kate Shephard. It was set up as a parliament for women due to the inability of women to stand in elections. The NCW was successful in many aspects as it was able to repeal the Contagious Disease Act of 1869. This gave women more privacy and once again independence. In 1895 the WCTU created a magazine called the White Ribbon. It voiced womens opinions such as the right to stand in elections and attracted a wide audience, even having many male readers. This continuing campaigning meant that although women had gain some rights, they were determined to gain full equality with their male counterparts.

The factors that contributed to women gaining the vote in 1893 were due to women voicing their opinion and understanding that hard work was needed to gain recognition. The changing role of women greatly contributed by displaying their importance and requirement to be rewarded. The WCTU and feminists were immense in pressuring the central government for womens rights. The gaining of the vote greatly changed the lives of women in New Zealand by giving them more independence, freedom and respect among the community. New rights ensured of their independence and the temperance movement created a civilised society for them to live in.

** GRADE E **


 * Essay Question No 6: Pakeha **

New Zealand women were granted the right to vote by Central Government in 1893, the first country to do so. The factors that held to this decision were the work of the early feminist writers, the work of the WCTU, the help of male politicians, and the social climate that developed in New Zealand and social issues that were going unaddressed. However, the vote did not change gender roles in New Zealand society, if anything it cemented the role of women in the maternal and domestic spheres.

Non-pakeha women in the 19th Century New Zealand were to a large extent British women of the Victorian age. This meant that they recognised, accepted and were proud of their traditional roles as mother, wife and housekeeper. This can be seen by the fact that even feminist writers recognised the difference in roles between men and women, “we shall never as a body equal men as a body, we have our own special blessings and virtues …” (Mary Coldough). This means that the women’s franchise campaign that took place in New Zealand wasn’t about removing women from their roles but rather getting the worth of their role recognised allowing them to fully fulfil their role in society of upholding the general moral tone by extending more legal and political rights to them.

The work of the early feminists started the process in the 1860s. For example Mary Anne Muller wrote articles in a Nelson newspaper under “Femina” and published “An appeal to the men of New Zealand”, asking men to consider equal voting rights for women. Mary Coldough started debates in Auckland newspapers about the legal position of women. Although they did not result in radical change they got people (men and women) questioning the legal and political status of women.

However, the decision would not have come about had it not been for the social climate that developed in New Zealand. The British migrants to New Zealand were generally those looking to escape the rigid class system of Britain (usually working-class) because it prevented people of their status from making progress economically and socially no matter how hard they worked. Therefore a more fluid social structure developed in NZ with widespread egalitarian ideals – Sandra Coney (Historian) cites the value placed on land ownership rather than tenor and the emphasis on universal education as evidence of this egalitarianism. Therefore it can be said that the decision to grant women the vote was an inevitable next step in a series of inclusive laws that were passed. This includes the Married Women’s Property Act of 1884 which allowed women to retain control of land after marriage. The Education Act of 1877 which made primary education compulsory for both girls and boys and women were already allowed to vote in local elections.

It can also be said that the greater economic independance that women in New Zealand (frontier colony) experienced lent a hand in women demanding the vote. In NZ women were more economically independant, evidence is that in 1882, ¼ of adult NZ women owned land and this was very high for global standards. When entered into marriage they took on the role of a “colonial helpmeet” in the words of Raewyn Dalziel and helped their husbands run farms, and businesses and took over if he died. Women were sometimes the leading money earners with businesses like butter making, therefore marriage became more of a partnership than it would have been in England and the role of women was modified by the frontier context. This gave women a greater sense of accomplishment as they often had to overcome great odds to carry out traditional tasks as well as new ones in the frontier colony. This sense of achievement led to women wanting more control over issues concerning them, their homes and families that were not being addressed.

One such issue was the issue of male drunkenness which negatively impacted the home life and general moral tone of society. In 1885 following a visit from Mary Clement Teriff (a member of the American Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)) many branches sprang up all over the country. Other reasons for women (and now the WCTU) were the issue of prostitutes. They wanted the Contagious Diseases Act repealed and banned, they wanted the profession banned as it was seen as an unfit place for a lady to work. They were also concerned about the legal rights of women ie the divorce laws, that existed at the time that displayed clear double standards. However it became clear that women’s issues were not going to be addressed by parliament unless women had the vote because early petitions were simply ignored.

This led to the formation of the Franchise Department of the WCTU headed by Kate Sheppard and the work done by her and this organisation played a crucial role in getting the vote for women. Kate Sheppard organised rallies, and pamphlets describing by women were demanding the vote, organised house to house calls to get signatures for mass petitions. Even though this was a difficult task it helped that NZ was one unified identity and which contained 30,000 signatures (¼ of the adult female population) had a huge impact on swaying the vote of parliamentarians. It showed that women did in fact want the vote and contradicted oppositions to giving the vote to women that said it was only the “shrieking sisterhood” (WCTU) that wanted this change. Kate Sheppard also formed the Women’s Franchise League (WFL) in 1892 which meant all women including those that did not want to get involved with a union for temperance could get behind the cause. It also ensured that there was a team of women dedicated solely to the suffrage cause (which was obviously successful as can be seen by the 1893 petition).

Kate Sheppard also enlisted the help of many prominent male politicians, mainly Sir John Hall, without whom the hard work of the WFL and WCTU would not have affected much legislative change. He was a prominent Canterbury runholder and a veteran politician, he agreed with the suffrage cause and presented the numerous petitions collected by the WCTO to parliament and made speeches describing why women deserved the right to vote. There were also many other supporters like Julius Vogel and James Wallis. The male voices in parliament were obviously an important factor as it is the other members of parliament that had to be convinced, therefore these male supporters played a key role in the decision being made. There were in fact many men that supported the vote for women. In 1879 when all males were granted the vote many thought that women should not have been excluded as they played such an important role in society especially in this frontier context. Therefore as a result of all these factors and undeniably due to some male perversity – NZ women were granted the vote in September 1892.

However once the vote was granted it did not change gender roles in NZ society but it did make social issues more important to the government.

The results of the 1893 election (the first one in the world in which women voted) the Liberals were re-elected and it ensured that women did not vote conservatively or “with the priests”. However, strong opponents to the women’s vote were not re-elected in some regions like Henry Fish. But overall it seemed that women tended to vote with their husbands.

So what did change for women as a result of the vote? The gender roles became further polarised with motherhood becoming a vocation and girls being taught domestic science in school. The Plunket Society attempted to apply scientific management techniques to tasks which women had been doing for hundreds of years. A “cult of domesticity” evolved as Erik Oldsey puts it. The role of women in the domestic and especially maternal spheres was emphasised. And women failed to make any further progress in the political field ie the first woman minister was in 1933 even though they were able to be elected for parliament since 1919. Women also dominated the usual “womanly” jobs such as teaching and nursing. This was used as evidence by early historians to say that the vote did not change women’s lives at all.

However, to say this is to apply 20th Century feminist views to 19th century feminism. Women in the 19th century had no desire to be removed completely from their traditional roles, “the role of mother was a noble and fulfilling job, the vote was seen as an extension of this role, not the herald of a new one” (Raewyn Dalziel “Colonial Helpmeet”). The women of New Zealand were more concerned about issues that effected the home and their children and the morality of society they used their vote to affect legislative change in these areas. For example in 1896 the Nation Women’s Council was set up to replace the WFL and it set out to co-ordinate the numerous women’s groups that sprung up after 1893 )further evidence that the vote did in fact motivate women to try and effect social change). The NCW continued to agitate for social reforms and lobbied to government, their main concerns being education, tax, the criminal code of children’s welfare. And because women were now a significant enough portion of voters there is evidence that the government took note (more than they would have if women had not had the vote) of women’s concerns. (New Zealand women did not become addicted to “masculine habbits” as a result of the vote, said A. Sto a prominent female figure that supported the franchise for women.

For example there was increased parliamentary discussion on “progressive issues” and many laws were passed that would make the lives of women easier. For example divorce laws that enabled wayward or abusive husbands to be divorced easily, child support laws, and others concerning the general welfare of the country eg old age pension, and the welfare of the native children, labour laws and the Contagious Diseases Act repealed. So the lives of women were changed to a certain extent even if they didn’t suddenly become fully engaged in political activities.

Therefore it is evident that women used their initiative in voting and used it to pressure government to pass laws that made their and the communities lives better. Therefore it did change the lives of women to a certain extent. The vote did not however cause drastic changes to gender roles but this was obviously never the intention of the 19th century feminist movement.

=**<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">__Constitution OT AV__ **= Explain the factors that led to the decision to grant constitutional independent government to New Zealand in 1852. Evaluate the consequences of this decision on New Zealand politics until 1876.

· Settlers forming “Constitutional Societies” as pressure groups targeting both the Colonial Office and the Governor. They claimed the Governor was exaggerating the potential for violence and simply refused to share power. · Many settlers wanted their own government in order to get their hands on cheap Māori land and government funding. · The British Government was unwilling to continue to be responsible for NZ because of the mounting costs. · British settlers were keen to establish British institutions and systems in New Zealand. They also wanted more say in government than they had had in Britain. · An earlier proposed constitution of 1846 had not been implemented, but its existence shows that right from the outset Pākehā settlers had wanted self-government. · There was also a significant assumption made by Pākehā settlers that they would dominate Māori. The 1853 constitution, by weakening the power of the governor to protect them, would achieve this.
 * The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: **

· The British Parliament passed the Act, which granted New Zealand the right to set up a democratic style government. {Whilst Governor Grey helped prepare the constitution and to set up the Provincial governments, he refused to call a general assembly and this was left for Lt. Col. Wynyard (Administrator) to do so in 1854.} · The 1852 Act set up six provinces, each with its own provincial government, an elected superintendent, and wide powers over local affairs including land revenue and purchase, customs revenue, public works, education, and immigration. · A Central parliament consisting of an Upper House and a Lower House would control national affairs. The Governor continued to control defence, foreign relations, and Māori Affairs until they were devolved to Ministers in the 1860s. · Franchise was male and property-based initially with a plural voting system. Māori were effectively unable to vote because they did not own land as individuals. Women were also excluded. · Māori franchise began in 1867. · Most Members of the House of Representatives were well-off Pākehā property owners, professional men, merchants, and substantial farmers or run holders. They were a small elite group who focused substantially on improving their own situations. Some were ex-New Zealand Company men. · Without a tight party structure, politics was largely personality-based and alliances were sometimes formed around significant business advantages offered. · There was plenty of “Pork Barrel” politics. · Eventually the Provincial government system began to financially implode. A financial downturn in the later 1860s stopped all borrowing and, therefore, development. · Julius Vogel proposed large-scale borrowing to establish a railway, telegraph water supply, and immigration on a national basis. By the mid 1870s, the success of the Vogel Scheme led directly to the demise of the Provincial governments, which were abolished in 1876. · Four Māori seats were established in 1867, and universal Māori male suffrage was introduced. Pākehā men were still bound by property qualifications. Pākehā representatives were numbered as a proportion of the Pākehā population. Māori seats were limited to four regardless of Māori population. · Pākehā men gained universal suffrage in 1879 (and women both Māori and Pākehā in 1893). · The Secret Ballot was introduced in 1870 (and Plural Voting was abolished in 1889).
 * The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: **


 * Liberals OT**

=__**<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Early Contact HP **__=
 * GRADE E **
 * __Essay Question No 1__ **

The early contact period of New Zealand right up to 1840 saw the conversion of many native Maori to Christianity and there were a number of various reasons which attracted them to do so. Some did it for the trade, others for the powers of the Pakeha god, however whatever the reason, whether for economical, spiritual, or physical gain, Maori were driven to do so through the fundamental element of their pursuit of Mana. The conversion to Christianity went on to influence Maori culture and society in a big way. The teachings imparted onto them by the Missionaries changed Native Maori economy, spirituality, and society forever.

The context of this early contact period is one where venturing Europeans meet curious Polynesians. Throughout the 16th and 18th centuries, Europe was going through a huge phase in global exploration, and it was the Dutchman Abel Tasman’s voyage to find the ‘unknown Southern Continent’ which first brought Europe in contact with New Zealand. This first counter however, was unpleasant and although the voyage down was not repeated until over a century later by Captain Cook, the accounts of these two voyages gained the Native Maori the title of ‘noble savages’. After Cook’s Voyage in the mid 18th century, European contact with New Zealand increased dramatically with the great natural resources in flora and fauna, New Zealand attracted many prospective sealers, whalers and traders. Kororareka, the only port of the time was dubbed the “hell hole of the Pacific” as it became notorious for drunkenness and debauchery as the demand for food supplies and sex resulted in the establishment of a very messy port. This concerned the humanitarians back in England and they soon set out on their missions to save the “noble savages” from these bad European influences by civilising and converting them.

With European contact came trade between Maori and Pakeha as Pakeha needed food and supplies, and Maori were curious about Pakeha technology. When Samuel Marsden arrived with the CMS in the Bay of Islands in 1813, they had to play by the rules of the Maori and trade with them in order to survive. Many Maori tribes hence saw missionaries as go-betweens for traders and them, or even direct sources of trade, and converted to Christianity to gain these material goods. Some missionaries even used bribing as a method of attracting Maori to attend services and become baptised, usually offering blankets and metal utensils. Some of the earlier historians such as Harrison Wright, see this behaviour as proof of the fatal impact theory. Maori were so overwhelmed by the superiority of Pakeha technology, that they had to obtain it. However, there is more evidence to support revisionist theories of acculturation as Maori often sought out trade in their pursuit of mana. Hongi Hika, a chief of Nga Puhi in the early 1800’s saw the value of Missionaries as a way of holding mana and monopolised them for the trading of muskets which he used to uphold his mana. The pursuit of mana was the key behind conversion for material goods.

Asides from going for the fringe benefits, Maori also converted to Christianity due to genuine belief in the power of the Pakeha God. During the period of 1830-1840 there was a significant increase in the conversion of Maori and this was attributed to the arrival of the Williams brothers in 1823 and Colenzo’s printing press in 1835. Historians such as Owens argue that the leadership and example set up by Henry and William Williams through their school in Paihia and their revised aim to convert then civilise played a vital role in the sudden increase in conversion. Perhaps this is so, but the decade between 1830 and 1840 contained more vital factors which contributes to Binney’s argument of ‘Maori initiative’ and Belich’s argument of ‘dispersion’, which support acculturation over fatal impact. Following the death of Hongi Hika in 1829, many Maori slaves who were captured during the musket wars were released and having been converted in captivity, brought Christianity back to their homes. The language barrier did not exist between these Maori agents and the unconverted hence making it much easier to convert. This plus the new desire for literacy to gain mana and European ways of agriculture prompted record numbers of Maori to convert, with 1700 converted of 6 months in one particular tribe.

Maori converted for their own benefits in other occasions also and to effects which were not originally intended by the missionaries. Another major evidence of acculturation in converting is the establishment of Maori denominations such as Pupuhurihia and Poi Marine. Maori also tended to prefer the old testament over the new as they felt they could relate to the Jews with Aotearoa as their own god-given land. They also converted to make statements on their political stance as whole tribes would convert to different denominations as their enemies to show opposition. All this supports acculturation and the pursuit of mana over fatal impact.

By the end of the 1840’s, over 60% of Maori had converted to Christianity, and as this was a change in lifestyle, it changed many aspects of their society. Economically, Maori underwent changes in both market and market products. Missionaries introduced potatoes and wheat, and also pigs as food items. In order to obtain the items that they wanted Maori also had to adopt these new items. Their processes of agriculture were also changed as new tools were introduced and they now produced commercially on larger scales rather than planting just enough for the Hapu and Iwi. These changes may seem to be sure signs of fatal impact on the surface as European culture seems to be taking over, as is the nature of fatal impact, however this was not the case. Fundamentally, Maori were utilising European technology to add to their own lifestyles. Iron was used to craft traditional weapons such as the Putu, nails were used in the traditional art of carving, and even the first commercial vegetable grower in the Bay of Islands was a Maori.

The conversion of Maori also brought about change spiritually and culturally for the Maori as new traditions replaced the old. More and more Maori were attending services by the 1840’s, 22 churches were built by the 1850’s, and the Sabbath was followed by the 1860’s. Old Maori traditions which were seen as being barbaric and savage such as tattooing, cannibalism, and cutting of the flesh to show grief was in decline. This was a great example of acculturation of European culture as although these extreme practices were abolished, the fundamental principles of mana and tribal life were still followed.

The introduction of Christianity also took its toll on the population of the Maori as it introduced a market for musket trade, and resulted in the Musket Wars. The Musket wars of the 1820’s and 30’s led by Hongi Hika and Te Rauparaha in the North and South of the country respectively, killed along with disease) 60,000 out of 130,000 Maori by some approximations. With muskets, Maori warfare escalated to a whole new level, however with the overwhelming death toll set to be a sure sign of fatal impact the cause behind the deaths supports acculturation. Hongi’s killing fest started as seek of utu for the death of his brother. He then moved down the North Island killing, but not conquering. His campaign was one of mana. He continued to flaunt the mana of his Nga Puhi and seek utu on all those tribes who did him wrong in the past – upholding Maori values and traditions with European weapons, a sure sign of acculturation.

The conversion of Maori to Christianity were due to many factors and bore many consequences. The pull-factors’ support for Maori initiative and Maori agent was more significant in comparison to their support of fatal impact as Maori converted to gain mana and even altered it through their own denominations to suit their purposes. The consequences affected them economically, spiritually, and population-wise, however their pursuit of mana which was the underlying factor demonstrated acculturation over fatal impact.

** AS3.4: Reasons Europeans Came to NZ in the Contact Period ** This achievement standard involves writing an essay describing **//factors that contribute to a significant decision//** made in an historical setting, explaining and evaluating the decision, and recognising historical narratives in relation to the decision made. · // Accurately describe the __historical context__ in which people made a decision. // · // Accurately and perceptively explain __factors that contributed__ to the decision. // · // Evaluate convincingly __consequences__ of the decision made. // · // Evaluate perceptively __historical narratives__ in relation to the decision made. //

· Progressive European exploration/expansion into the Pacific region. Journal reports from Cook’s voyages of exploitable resources (eg whales, timber, flax) · First sealers in Murihiku - Dusky Bay (1792), a major medium of contact for Southern Ngai Tahu and Ngati Mamoe. Lucrative export trade to China (via Sydney), but a hard and dangerous lifestyle · Deep-sea whaling was an off-shoot of the North Pacific (America) and Australian trade. A mix of British, American, French and ‘others’. Whale oil was in demand to lubricate Britain’s industrial revolution, and whale bone pre-dated steel. Shore-based stations exploited the whale migration routes that ran past areas such as the Cook Strait and Taranaki. · Maori provided an enthusiastic market for the trade items that Europeans brought, such as iron tools, foodstuffs, muskets etc. Europeans required mostly timber (ship-building, masts, and house-building in Sydney) and flax (rope). · Missionary activity in other areas led to the decision to establish mission stations in New Zealand. This was part of an evangelical revival from the late 18th century. The goal was to ‘save’ heathen Maori. · Officials came to NZ to deal with the problems of unregulated migration. The colony of NSW extended a ‘vague jurisdiction’ (Orange) over NZ for much of the contact period, with occasional visits by warships. Northern Maori in particular had established a close relationship with the Governors in NSW and a few had even travelled to England. Busby’s appointment was in response to a missionary-sponsored petition to Britain to recognise New Zealand’s independence. His ineffectiveness led to the necessity, as Britain saw it, of negotiating the Treaty of Waitangi. · Wakefield believed in ‘scientific’ and ‘systematic’ colonisation after developing an interest (while in prison) in migration issues. He looked to establish in New Zealand agriculturally-based communities that would recreate a ‘slice’ of English society. This plan required purchasing large amounts of land cheaply off the Maori, then on-selling it a profit to migrants in order to fund the scheme. || · Some huge seal harvests (between 1804 and 1806 a Sydney sealing firm ‘harvested’ over 200,000 skins) resulted in conflict in Southern areas of contact. The over-exploited seal industry collapsed by the 1820s. · Kororareka became a hub of deep-sea whalers, and contact here was uniquely intensive. This led to an increase in trade and provision of services such as prostitutes. Condemned by missionaries and others as a ‘hellhole’, and thus a focus of concern over lawlessness and impact on Maori. Maori also worked on ships. · Shore-based whaling/trading stations facilitated contact and the exchange of values and ideas. Pakeha inter-married, and Maori often worked at the stations. · Trading posts were established primarily in coastal areas under the patronage of chiefs, who were keen to secure ‘their’ Pakeha. For the most part, a ‘workable accord’ was established. Maori demand for Pakeha goods changed over time (‘currency of mana’). · Maori were exposed to and adapted certain European aspects, values and ideas, such as the market economy, foodstuffs and attire, different notions of land and justice, religion and technology. Maori were also exposed to European diseases, which took a heavy toll in areas of contact. · Increasing inter-racial problems and trouble-making by Europeans led to the appointment of Busby. Busby’s inefficacy due to lack of support from his superiors ultimately led to the need for Britain to intervene further ( ** Orange ** ). The Wakefield settlements added to the pressure. · Wakefield’s first settlement at Port Nicholson had a difficult start, and (like the subsequent settlements) relied on Maori for labour and food. Relations were at first good but deteriorated as more settlers arrived and as disputes over land purchases occurred || · ** Harrison Wright ** : ‘Fatal Impact’ and Maori conversion to Christianity due to a series of crises · ** Claudia Orange: ** ‘workable accord’ · ** Belich ** : ‘flax, timber, whales; seals, sex and souls’ and the ‘changing currency of mana’ · ** Pool ** : Maori as an ‘immunologically virgin’ population · ** Owens ** : Maori conversion to Christianity due to increased missionary effectiveness · ** Binney ** : Maori made an active choice to accept Christianity · ** Binney/Belich/Salmond/Parsonson: ** acculturation ||
 * Decision: ** Of different groups of Pakeha to come to New Zealand in the contact period.
 * ** __Historical Context/Factors contributing to the decision__ **
 * ** __Consequences__ **
 * ** __Historiography__ **

=<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">__** MIssionaries HD **__ = ** GRADE M **
 * __Essay Question No 1__ **

Four main factors led many Maori to convert to Christianity before 1840. The first two: the approval of literacy and the desire for wealth and arms arose from conscious Maori decisions to convert, whereas war weariness and disease led Maori to convert because of a series of crises that undermined Maori self-confidence. Conversion of Maori to Christianity saw the emergence of syncretic cults, the adoption of western values and the discardation of certain Maori values.

The first missionaries arrived in New Zealand in 1814, in the form of the Anglicans: Samuel Marsden and the Christian Mission Society (CMS). They were soon followed in 1823 by the Wesleyans and then the Catholics in 1858. Despite their different denominations, they shared a common goal of “Christianizing” the Maori, whom they saw as noble savages in need of – in their eurocentric opinions – rescuing from their heathen and barbaric ways. Thus, they believed that “Christianity needed to accompany civilization” (Binney). However, the first missionaries were not successful as they could not speak Maori, they did not attempt to assimilate, and because they depended on Maori for food and protection. Maori saw the missionaries as trade magnets, and dismissed Christianity as ‘the religion of slaves’ (Honi Hika). Thus, they continued to trade with missionaries in such commodities as muskets and axes, and “having” a missionary with a tribe became a source of mana. Despite this, by 1820, few Maori had been baptised.

However, between the 1820s and the 1830s, there had been a shift in attitudes and by 1850, 30,000 Maori had been baptised. Christianity began to appeal more to Maori through literacy and wealth and arms that seemed to accompany them. In return for food and protection, the missionaries would teach Maori to read and write. Literacy appealed to Maori because it gave them further insight into the Pakeha culture, and increased their mana. By the late 1820s, literacy began to spread through Maoridom, for example when Nga Puhi slaves were freed, they carried and spread this skill to their own tribes. In being able to read, Maori were able to read the Bible, and were led to Christianity through its message of peace. Furthermore, they were able to identify with, and believed themselves to be the lost tribe of Israel.

Maori initially saw missionaries as sources of trade, especially in muskets, and missionaries used this to their advantage, and “planned to excite a spirit of trade and a cultivated dependency on European commodities” (Ward) within Maori. As a result, Maori saw conversion as a means of barter, or exchange in gaining commodities, and thus increasing their mana.

Towards the end of the 1830s, Maori conversion began to arise out of a series of crises that undermined their confidence in their own culture. The arrival of Europeans saw the arrival of diseases such as influenza, for which traditional Maori healers did not have cures. The missionaries, however, with such medicines as aspirin, were able to, to an extent, heal sick Maori. Maori saw this as an act of the Pakeha God, causing for reason to convert to Christianity.

Furthermore, the increase in muskets in Maori hands, meant that the casualties of traditional Maori warfare escalated, causing Maori to become more weary of war, and welcome the message of peace that the missionaries brought with them. Thus, by 1830, 30,000 Maori had converted and by 1842, 22 churches had been built in New Zealand. Maori conversion to Christianity saw the adoption of some western values, the discardation of some Maori values, and the emergence of Maori syneretic religions. It is evident that literacy, and therefore the Bible, had a great4er influence in converting Maori, than the missionaries did, through the decisions Maori made, in converting.

Based on the Bible, Maori largely stopped the practise of cannibalism and polygamy, and reserved Ra Tapu – Sunday – as a day of rest and worship. Practises such as tattooing were also reduced, as was the belief in warfare, though neither were completely abolished. Christianity became a medium through which Maori were linked with Pakeha, creating common ground, and thus Maori began to value European values, such as education, and increasingly began to wear European clothes.

Maori belief in the Pakeha God also led to the emergence of synenetic groups, such as Papahurihia and the Rawana Church. These groups symbolized a “purely Maori path to God, and discarded the idea that civilization need to follow it.” (King)

In the factors that led Maori to convert, and the consequences that followed, it is evident that Maori were constantly selective rather than forced into conversion by missionaries. Despite the missionaries’ efforts to tempt Maori into conversion through commodities, and although Maori did begin to lose some confidence in their own culture, in converting to Christianity, Maori were selective about those values that they adopted and those that they discarded. They continually based their decisions upon the purely Maori institution of mana, and only those who wished to convert did so. And in the end those who converted, became __Christian__, and not __Pakeha__.

Explain the factors that led to many Māori deciding to convert to Christianity before 1840. Evaluate the consequences of Christian conversion on Māori in the nineteenth century.

· Māori initiative in choosing to become Christian. Many Māori actively chose Christianity for their own reasons, selectively adopting aspects of the Christian faith for their own purposes. Literacy and increased mana were incentives for conversion. There was a great deal of Māori interest in literacy, which through missionary effort often went hand in hand with Christianity. · Māori converted each other. Slaves released by Ngā Puhi after the Musket Wars returned to their iwi with new skills, literacy, ideas, and faith that they introduced to their people. The expertise of these and other Māori preachers rather than the missionaries themselves made the Christian message easier to understand. · Missionary effectiveness may have improved with the arrival of Henry Williams of the CMS, who changed the previous focus from ‘civilising in order to convert’, to a more determined focus on evangelism. It has been argued that missionaries became more effective after they became more fluent in Māori language and became more economically and, therefore, politically independent. · Discussion of the merits and limitations of the “fatal impact theory”. Some Māori suffered from war weariness and dislocation from their own culture as the result of the musket wars. There were some European diseases that the tohunga could not cure. This was combined with the apparent evidence of a ‘superior’ God and ‘superior’ culture of the European missionaries who had medicines that seemed superior to those of the tohunga. (This is the now unfashionable “Eurocentric” view presented by Harrison Wright in 1959.) · Syncretic religions such as that created by Wiremu Tamihana Tarapipipi Te Waharoa, (founded at Taupiri in 1836) and Te Atua Wera (Papahurihia 1820s) adapted Christianity or indigenised it in a way that made it more attractive to Māori. · The desire for an end to warfare. · The desire for access to European goods—missions encouraged traders. · The intellectual debate and discussions that accompanied the teaching that appealed to Māori. · The desire for the power that seemed to accompany the teachings.
 * The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: **

· Creation of synthesized Christian religions such as Papahurihia or that preached by Wiremu Tamihana. · Developing literacy in written Māori. · Acceptance of European-style schools (Native school systems). · Missionary mana enabled the Treaty to be “sold” to Māori. · Creation of significant Māori leaders through the mission schools such as Te Whiti o Rongomai, Te Kooti, Tamihana Te Rauparaha, Wiremu Tamihana and Matana Te Whiwhi. · The end of cannibalism, infanticide, slavery, tempered violence, etc. But: · Missionary Christianity did lead to the loss of cultural practices such as haka and moko in some places. · The release of slaves into some areas that had been sold to Europeans caused inter-racial conflict. (See Ruth Ross, “The Treaty on the Ground” in //The Treaty of Waitangi: Its Origins and Significance//, 1972). · The uptake of European culture, language, or religion changed the nature of relationships within a tribe.
 * The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: **

Explain the factors that led to Hone Heke’s decision to cut down the flagpole flying the Union Jack above Kororareka (Russell) in 1845. Evaluate the consequences of this decision on race relations in the north until 1850.
 * Topic Two: Essay Two **

Factors that led to Heke’s loss of rangatiratanga: · The application of British sovereignty after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. · The removal of shipping customs duties from the chiefs to the Crown. · The Crown’s application of the pre-emption clause restricting the Māori right to sell land to whomsoever they wanted. · The felling of kauri was forbidden in November 1841, again reducing Māori income. · The movement of the Capital from Kororareka to Auckland in 1841. · The trial and hanging of Maketu for the murder of a settler family in Waimate. · Hone Heke’s belief that both the British flag and the New Zealand flag of independence be flown to represent dual sovereignty. · The first three fellings of the flagstaff had failed to gain any response from the Colonial Government.
 * The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: **

· FitzRoy had waived Crown pre-emption for a time in response to Heke’s complaints. · The fourth felling of the flagstaff included the sacking and burning of Kororareka. This led to the residents of Kororareka being evacuated to Auckland. · Fighting broke out between Hone Heke and Kawiti against British troops supported by Tamati Waka Nene (the Northern War). · The Northern War revealed the struggle between Hone Heke and Tamati Waka Nene to be recognised as Hongi Hika’s successor as paramount chief of Ngā Puhi. · A reward was offered for the arrest of Hone Heke. · Governor FitzRoy was sacked and Governor Grey installed to bring the war to a close. · The fighting ended with the British claiming a victory after the battle of Ruapekapeka. (Belich disputes the nature of the British victory, referring to the Northern War as the “war the British lost”.) · Hone Heke was never arrested nor punished for his rebellion, but the British clearly believed that his threat was over when they began garrisoning south of Auckland rather than north of it. · The flagstaff was not re-erected until after Hone Heke’s death in 1850.
 * The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: **

=<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">__Wakefield FH__ = ** GRADE E **


 * __Essay Question No 3__ **

Edward Gibbon Wakefield developed his ideas and theories on systematic colonisation over a three-year period spent in jail. Wakefield’s ideas were a response to the state of Britain at the time – Britain’s politics, social problems, demographic imbalances and Industrialisation. Also influencing Wakefield was the penal colonies established by Britain; and built his settlements to avoid the mistakes of the past. Wakefield disdained unorganised settlement. As a consequence of the four Wakefield settlements established in New Zealand and the efforts of the New Zealand Company to attract emigrants, some 15,000 people came to New Zealand to shape New Zealand as a nation. Wakefield’s vision for New Zealand affected its cultural landscape, settlers’ values, and concerns about other racial groups entering New Zealand. But ultimately New Zealand was not the place to realise Wakefield’s dream.

Wakefield was highly critical of the Industrialisation of Britain; the Revolution had led to increased crime, unemployment, and poverty as the jobs of labourers and skilled artisans were replaced by machines. Wakefield saw the solution to Britain’s problems in systematic colonisation. He dreamed of recreating the agricultural rural life of Britain’s pre-Industrial days. It was the impetus of Industrialisation which lead Wakefield to dream of a utopian colony in New Zealand.

Also contributing to Wakefield’s ideas on planned settlements was the evidence of other colonies. Wakefield particularly disliked the penal colonies, such as Australia. To avoid the problems of these colonies, Wakefield planned to only attract the “right” sort of people to New Zealand. Wakefield wanted to preserve Britain’s hierarchies, with a moneyed class (to provide capital for investment and also positions in government) and a large respectable working class to provide labour. In order to achieve this, Wakefield’s NZ Company offered assisted or free passages to people who fulfilled particular criteria. For example, single women, domestic servants and agricultural labourers were considered desirable, and Wakefield assisted thousands of single women. Thus, to maintain distinct social classes, Wakefield planned on setting land at a “sufficient price.” That is, high enough to ensure the presence of a labouring class, and low enough to attract the men of means. Thus, due to the influence of penal colonies and unplanned settlement, Wakefield planned to recreate a hierarchal society, achieved through control of land sales.

Wakefield’s ideas were not simply an answer to the problems of the Industrial Revolution, but also an answer to Britain’s demographic imbalances and the desire of the working class man to “get ahead”. Although Wakefield wanted a hierarchical society, he did allow for some fluidity. Britain’s social structures were rigid and constraining – which was not something Wakefield wanted to maintain. Although a working man could not expect to buy land in New Zealand on arrival, it was thought that, with a few years of hard work and saving, any labourer had the potential to join the ranks of the landowners. This element of Wakefield’s planned settlement of New Zealand was designed to encourage the working class emigrants, as well as appealing to Britain’s middle class women. Middle class women in Britain were simply ornaments to their husbands, and had little independence. This, compounded with the shortage of men in Britain, led many middle-class spinsters to consider moving to the colonies. Thus the demographic imbalance and rigidity of Britain were problems to be addressed in Wakefield’s planned settlement of New Zealand.

Wakefield’s planned settlement of New Zealand had an enormous impact on New Zealand’s cultural landscape. Wakefield’s New Zealand Company put New Zealand on the immigration map, bringing approximately 15,000 people to New Zealand who might have otherwise gone to North America. North America was a far cheaper and easier option for those thinking of leaving Britain: the voyage to America took only 10 days and cost just £4, whereas it took between 75 and 120 days to travel to New Zealand and cost £15. Thus, it was the work of Wakefield’s immigration on agents and manuals which assisted immigration and sold New Zealand as a country of “natural abundance” which led to such success.

Also, as the New Zealand Company planned a British settlement, with immigrants chosen by a select criteria, the New Zealand Company helped determine the social status, race and occupations of early New Zealand settlers. Most immigrants were English with over 80% of assisted immigrants from England. That New Zealand’s earliest settlers were English helped determine the culture of the nation. As 65% of English immigrants came before 1850, they were able to establish traditions early on. And most of the moneyed settlers who came to New Zealand were English, which led to their over-representation in politics. For instance, between 1854 and 1890, almost half of the MPs in office were English. Thus the Wakefield settlement of New Zealand helped to establish New Zealand’s most influential group, which shaped the nation culturally and politically.

The distinctly British character of the Wakefield settlements had consequences for other minority immigrant groups – especially the Chinese and the Dalmatians. While the Dunedin Chamber of Commerce had encouraged the arrival of Chinese miners to the Otago goldfields in 1865, the Chinese were soon met with prejudice and suspicion as a result of their cultural differences. In order to “protect” New Zealand’s British nature, a series of legislative actions were taken to restrict the number of Chinese immigrants. For instance, in 1881 the Chinese Immigrants Restriction Act imposed a poll tax (which was twice amended) and also restricted the number of Chinese immigrants to one per 10 tons of the ship’s weight. Immigration was again made difficult for the Chinese in 1899, with the Immigration Restriction Act. This introduced a European language and reading test and denied Chinese of the possibility of gaining citizenship. Similar discriminatory actions were carried out against New Zealand’s Dalmatian population; for instance, 1898 Kauri Gum Industry Act dealt with the “Austrian question” by excluding Dalmatians. Thus, the British nature of New Zealand established and supported by the Wakefield settlement in the 1840s and 1850s led to racial discrimination and legislative measures to “keep New Zealand British” which reached further and beyond.

The organised nature of the Wakefield settlements also led to rivalry between the planned and unplanned settlements. This can especially be seen between Wellington and Auckland. Although Auckland was latterly a more prosperous town than Wellington, and represented the vertical slice of pre-Industrialised British society (as Wakefield had wanted) better than Wellington, Auckland was still considered inferior. It was thought that Auckland was settled by the “riff-raff”, which was reinforced in 1842, when a ship carrying 98 Parkhurst boys arrived in Auckland. Thus, the fact that Wakefield had initiated New Zealand’s settlement as a planned process, led to rivalry between townships.

Another consequence of Wakefield’s planned settlements was the apparent failure of the sites he chose to live up to his ideals. His settlements were poorly planned, with little consideration for the geographical limitations of the country, and overall, they failed to deliver to both the gentry and the working class settlers who came here. The working classes had been guaranteed employment and wages, but because of slow land sales and a lack of capital to invest, the reality was in fact, unemployment. And, the gentry had been promised development and prosperity, but the land sales were hindered due to disputes with local Maori tribes. All in all, the ultimate consequence of Wakefield’s planned settlements was the failure of a dream.

The ideas that Wakefield’s planned settlement of New Zealand were based on, were a response to the shortcomings of Britain and her past colonies. Social problems, unemployment, demographic imbalances, the “failure” of unorganised settlement and the rigid hierarchies of British society all contributed to the way New Zealand was settled. And as a result of the planning that dominated the settlement process, a specific type of early settler came to New Zealand. Largely British, the Wakefield settlements affected the country’s politics, led to racial prejudice and induced rivalry between the “superior” organised settlements, and the “inferior” unorganised settlements. But perhaps most significantly, the Wakefield settlements did not achieve Wakefield’s dreams: with slow land sales, poor planning and conflict with Maori, the Wakefield settlement could not recreate pre-Industrial rural Britain.

** AS3.4: Organised Immigration Schemes to **** New Zealand ** This achievement standard involves writing an essay describing **//factors that contribute to a significant decision//** made in an historical setting, explaining and evaluating the decision, and recognising historical narratives in relation to the decision made. · // Accurately describe the __historical context__ in which people made a decision. // · // Accurately and perceptively explain __factors that contributed__ to the decision. // · // Evaluate convincingly __consequences__ of the decision made. // · // Evaluate perceptively __historical narratives__ in relation to the decision made. //

= Wakefield settlements = · Edward Gibbon Wakefield established in Britain the NZ Company. His goal was to create functional settler societies in new lands through ‘systematic colonisation’. By organising the emigration he hoped to avoid the ‘frontier’ societies that resulted from uncontrolled migration. He would also bring out people that were ‘better stock’, rather than what he considered to be the ‘undesirables’ who were usually at the forefront of unorganised migration. · Wakefield thus sent land-buyers to New Zealand to purchase as much land as possible off the Maori as cheaply as possible. Land would be surveyed and sub-divided, and then sold by ballot in London. Profits from the sale would be put into funding the immigrants’ passage (as well as returning a dividend to shareholders). · Wakefield wished to ‘transplant a slice of old England’ to New Zealand. This meant having at least a few wealthy colonists who would become the gentry. They would use their capital to develop the land and pay the emigrant labourers. Labourers, in turn, would have the undreamed of prospect of themselves becoming small landowners after working for a few years. · Wakefield believed that tight-knit English-style agricultural communities, based around the gentry and social organisations such as the church, would prevent labour from dispersing and thus defeating his ideal. He also aimed to balance the sexes by encouraging families to migrate. = Provincial Government schemes = · Responsibility for land revenue and immigration was given to the Provincial Governments in the 1852 Constitution. This in effect pitted each Province against the others (as well as other overseas destinations). Most provinces used agents in England, Ireland, Scotland and Australia in an attempt to attract migrants. · A labour shortage meant that migrants were desperately needed. · In the 1870s, from England New Zealand was a 90-day sea voyage costing about 15pounds, compared to 10 days and 4pounds to New York. There needed to be incentives to attract migrants, such as the promise of relatively cheap and abundant land. The fertility, climate and ability to ‘get ahead’ were also emphasised. · A continued shortage of labour/migrants, combined with an economic downturn in the 1860s, meant that the Provinces were unable to meet the requirements for further development that many settlers hoped to see. The NZ Wars had also discouraged migrants. The central government faced similar problems to the Provinces in terms of cost and distance for migrants. · The Immigration and Public Works Act removed responsibility for immigration and development from the ailing Provinces and gave it to Central government. · Premier Julius Vogel borrowed an unprecedented ten million pounds to buy more land, help develop infrastructure and attract migrants. A scheme was introduced to attract the ‘right sort’ of migrants – labourers, the skilled, women. || = Wakefield Schemes = · Port Nicholson (Wellington), Wanganui, New Plymouth and Nelson were established. Despite the problems mentioned below, these ‘seed communities’ (and the Wakefield-based communities of Dunedin and Christchurch, plus ‘unorganised’ Auckland) were the foundations of European settlement in NZ. Together, the Wakefield and Wakefield-inspired settlements attracted 12,000 immigrants who might well have gone elsewhere. · All of the settlements initially struggled, and were dependent upon Maori for food and labour. Sections bought off a plan in London were sometimes found not to resemble what was available in New Zealand (e.g. steepness), or were otherwise unsuitable for farming. Surveying was incomplete. The NZ Company ended up having to employ migrants on roading and other schemes while surveying of the land was completed. · Problems sometimes arose over the purchase of land from Maori, where haste and confusion led to disputes over exactly what land had been sold. · Absentee ownership by speculators meant that the hoped for number of wealthier capitalists did not actually migrate. · Pastoralism rapidly replaced agriculture as the main form of farming, especially in Christchurch and Dunedin. This resulted in pressure to disperse the settlements as pastoralism required more land than agriculture. **Provincial Government Schemes** · Prosperous provinces such as Otago and Canterbury (gold/pastoralism) were more easily able to attract migrants. These provinces also offered assisted or even free passage to ‘desirable’ migrants (skilled and semi-skilled workers), as well as single women. Around 8000 women were recruited and assisted to NZ in order to work as domestic servants, and to redress the gender imbalance. · Provinces such as Taranaki (in general, the North Island), where war broke out in the early 1860s, struggled to find migrants. · As with the Wakefield settlements, too few wealthy capitalists made the journey, limiting the amount of money available for investment in developing the land. · The gold rushes of the 1860s disrupted the plans for a balanced and controlled settlement of Otago and Canterbury, contributing to a major gender imbalance. = Central Government Schemes = · In all, some 100,000 migrants made NZ their destination. Subsidised or assisted fares made up most of these (some, especially single women, were granted free passage). Half of the migrants came from England, one quarter from Ireland, and the rest from Scotland and other parts of Europe. Because not enough British migrants could be attracted, the government encouraged some 6000 Germans and Scandinavians to migrate, and they were sent to ‘special settlements’ such as Seventy Mile bush, to undertake the difficult job of breaking in that land. This augmented natural population increase and by 1900 Pakeha numbered about 750,000, compared to Maori at about 40,000. · The economic downturn and rising unemployment, both of which characterised the ‘Long Depression’, put an end to the assisted immigration schemes. Natural increase subsequently exceeded that from migration. · ** Military settlers **, particularly from Australia, were encouraged to people the ‘frontier’ with the defeated Kingitanga. Such settlements included Cambridge, Kihikihi, and Hamilton. · Through the three waves of migration British values and practises were firmly established. Maori were vastly outnumbered by 1900 and NZ had become primarily a Pakeha country (with some areas of Maoridom). A rudimentary network of roads supplemented rail and coastal/river transport. Although men still outnumbered women, the severe gender imbalance of earlier years had disappeared. · While explicit attempts were made to exclude ‘Asiatics’, NZ was not entirely a ‘British’ country. Small groups of Germans, Scandinavians, Bohemians, Dalmatians and //Catholic// Irish still made it to New Zealand. || · ** Belich ** : migrants were attracted by the ‘bait’ of ‘powerful myths and prophecies’, such as the ease with which one could prosper · ** Fairburn ** : efforts by agents and advertising to attract migrants focused on the ‘natural abundance’ of New Zealand. · ** Olssen ** : women had a greater hope of entering into a materially successful marriage in NZ, whereas in Britain the ‘surplus’ of women made this uncertain. · ** McDonald ** : women migrated for the same reasons as men – to do better in life. · **McKinnon**: Wellington’s kin-migration scheme was responsible for a considerable number of migrants to that area. ||
 * Decision: ** To plan and carry out organised immigration schemes to New Zealand
 * ** __Historical Context/Factors contributing to the decision__ **
 * Central Government Schemes **
 * ** __Consequences__ **
 * ** __Historiography__ **

=<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> __**Declaration of Independence TB AV**__ =